Formal Total Synthesis of (±)-Cephalotaxine and Congeners via Aryne Insertion Reaction

Homoharringtonine: updated insights into its efficacy in hematological malignancies, diverse cancers and other biomedical applications

HHT has emerged as a notable compound in the realm of cancer treatment, particularly for hematological malignancies. Its multifaceted pharmacological properties extend beyond traditional applications, warranting an extensive review of its mechanisms and efficacy. This review aims to synthesize comprehensive insights into the efficacy of HHT in treating hematological malignancies, diverse cancers, and other biomedical applications. It focuses on elucidating the molecular mechanisms, therapeutic potential, and broader applications of HHT. A comprehensive search for peer-reviewed papers was conducted across various academic databases, including ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Scopus, American Chemical Society, Google Scholar, PubMed/MedLine, and Wiley. The review highlights HHT's diverse mechanisms of action, ranging from its role in leukemia treatment to its emerging applications in managing other cancers and various biomedical conditions. It underscores HHT's influence on cellular processes, its efficacy in clinical settings, and its potential to alter pathological pathways. HHT demonstrates significant promise in treating various hematological malignancies and cancers, offering a multifaceted approach to disease management. Its ability to impact various physiological pathways opens new avenues for therapeutic applications. This review provides a consolidated foundation for future research and clinical applications of HHT in diverse medical fields.

Concise Synthesis of (±)-Fortuneicyclidins and (±)-Cephalotine B Enabled by Pd-Catalyzed Dearomative Spirocyclization

Total syntheses of C11-oxygenated Cephalotaxus alkaloids, fortuneicyclidins A and B, and cephalotine B, were achieved. The key for the synthesis is a Pd-catalyzed dearomative spirocyclization of bromofurans with N-tosylhydrazones, followed by acid-mediated tandem transformation to construct the tetracyclic skeleton with the C11-oxygen functional group. Chemo-selective and catalytic functional group conversions of the tetracyclic intermediate completed the synthesis of fortuneicyclidins and cephalotine B in 8 and 9 steps, respectively.

Easy Access to Phenanthridinones via Metal-Free Cascade Benzannulation and C-N Bond Formation

A concise route for the synthesis of dihydrobenzo[j]phenanthridinones has been disclosed through an aryne annulation strategy under metal-free reaction conditions. The reaction involves multiple C-C and C-N bond cleavages/formations via Diels-Alder reaction, aromatization-driven C-N bond cleavage, and amide formation.

Enantioselective Total Synthesis of the Cephalotaxus Alkaloid (-)-Cephalotine A

Cephalotine A, a recently isolated Cephalotaxus alkaloid, was first synthesized enantioselectively through three critical reactions. SmI2 -mediated radical cyclization of lactone and aldehyde to forge the final ring system, Chang's iridium-catalyzed C-H amidation to construct pyrrolidone stereoselectively, and Carreria's dual Ir/amine catalyzed allylation to install the vicinal tertiary stereocenters.

Cascade aryne insertion/vinylogous aldol reaction of vinyl-substituted β-keto/enol carbonyls

Cyclic and acyclic vinyl substituted β-keto/enol carbonyl substrates, on reaction with arynes, result in differentially substituted naphthyl carbocycles, hitherto difficult to synthesize with existing protocols. While the substitutions on the arynes have no role, the ring size of the cyclic β-keto/enol esters has a profound influence on the product formation.

Gold(I)-Catalyzed Cyclization-3-Aza-Cope-Mannich Cascade and Its Application to the Synthesis of Cephalotaxine

The discovery of a new gold(I)-catalyzed cascade reaction involving cyclization onto a vinylammonium, 3-aza-Cope rearrangement, and Mannich cyclization is reported. A variety of fused nitrogen heterocycles were prepared from simple cyclic tertiary amines using 1-5 mol % of a AuCl(PPh₃)/Ag[C₅(CN)₅] cocatalyst system. The developed reaction was used in a study aimed at synthesizing cephalotaxine. A five-step operation from norhydrastinine provided demethylcephalotaxinone in 39.1% overall yield, which was transformed to (-)-cephalotaxine in two steps.

Collective Asymmetric Total Synthesis of C-11 Oxygenated Cephalotaxus Alkaloids

While numerous studies pertaining to the total synthesis of Cephalotaxus alkaloids have been reported, only two strategies have been reported to date for the successful synthesis of the C-11 oxygenated subset, due to the additional synthetic challenge posed by the remote C-11 stereocenter. Herein, we report the collective asymmetric total synthesis of C-11 oxygenated Cephalotaxus alkaloids using a chiral proline both as a starting material and as the only chirality source. A tetracyclic advanced intermediate was synthesized in a highly stereoselective manner from l-proline in 8 steps involving sequential chirality transfer steps such as a diastereoselective N-alkylation, stereospecific Stevens rearrangement and intramolecular Friedel-Crafts reaction via an unusual O-acyloxocarbenium intermediate. From a common intermediate, the asymmetric total synthesis of six C-11 oxygenated Cephalotaxus alkaloids was completed by a series of oxidation state adjustments.

Concise Synthesis of Chromene/Chromane-Type Aryne Precursors and Their Applications

The gram-scale synthesis of 5,6-, 6,7-, and 7,8-chromene/chromane-type aryne precursors and their applications in regioselective transformation to other functional derivatives is reported. Chromene/chromane-type arynes are generated under mild conditions, which can further undergo [2 + 2], [3 + 2], and [4 + 2] cycloaddition reactions, nucleophilic addition reactions, and σ-insertion reactions to produce structurally novel substituted chromenes and chromanes. The excellent regioselectivity of the reaction is facilitated by the oxygen-containing guiding groups at the ortho-position of the triple bond, which can be removed or switched to other functional groups including alkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and arylamino groups.

Aromaticity-Driven Access to Cycloalkyl-Fused Naphthalenes

We report the efficient synthesis of cycloalkyl-fused naphthalenes through the [4 + 2]-cycloaddtion/decarboxylative aromatization of alkyne-tethered aryne insertion adducts. These scaffolds were difficult to synthesize using conventional reactions. The reaction proceeds via the formation of a benzopyrylium intermediate followed by intramolecular [4 + 2] cycloaddition and a subsequent decarboxylation pathway. This method is also compatible with allene-tethered substrates to afford similar products. In addition, the one-pot synthesis of polysubstituted naphthalenes via aryne insertion/benzannulation has also been developed in good yield.

Exploring Possible Surrogates for Kobayashi's Aryne Precursors

A class of aryne precursors, that is, 2-(trimethylsilyl)aryl 4-chlorobenzenesulfonates, has been developed through well-established synthetic routes, which allow the formation of arynes under relatively mild conditions. All the aryne precursors were obtained from phenols and 4-chlorobenzenesulfonyl chloride, an inexpensive and easy-to-handle reagent with relatively low toxicity, and subjected to nucleophilic addition reactions, providing addition products in yields of 24 to 92%, and to cycloaddition reactions, affording cycloadducts in yields up to 80%. This work provides interesting insights into the mechanisms of aryne generation. In addition, 2-(trimethylsilyl)phenyl 4-chlorobenzenesulfonate was successfully employed in the total synthesis of (±)-aporphine.

Synthesis of 1-Azaspiro[4.4]nonane Derivatives Enabled by Domino Radical Bicyclization Involving Formation and Capture of Alkoxyaminyl Radicals

The application of a domino radical bicyclization for the synthesis of compounds containing the 1-azaspiro[4.4]nonane skeleton in 11-67% yields as a mixture of diastereomers is described (trans configuration preference). This process involved formation and capture of alkoxyaminyl radicals. For this purpose, O-benzyl oxime ethers with a brominated or iodinated aromatic ring or a terminal alkynyl group and an alkenyl moiety were employed as starting materials. The bicyclization was initiated by 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile or triethylborane and promoted by Bu₃SnH. The best results were obtained with O-benzyl oxime ethers containing an alkenyl moiety tethered to electron withdrawing groups or aryl substituents, whereas oxime radical precursor attached to methyl-substituted olefin precluded the capture of alkoxyaminyl radical, giving rise mainly to monocyclized product.

Construction of indazolo[3,2-a]isoquinolines via [3 + 2] cycloaddition of benzynes

A [3 + 2] annulation protocol for the construction of N-substituted indazolo[3,2-a]isoquinolines starting from benzynes and C,N-cyclic azomethine imines was developed. A diverse range of highly functionalized products indazolo[3,2-a]isoquinolines featuring an indazole scaffold can be easily accessed via a one-step reaction under mild conditions, and they show good anti-proliferative activity on cancer cells.

Proline Ester Enolate Claisen Rearrangement and Formal Total Synthesis of (-)-Cephalotaxine

A concise formal total synthesis of (-)-cephalotaxine was achieved via an ester enolate Claisen rearrangement (EECR). A series of EECRs of proline allyl esters were examined to obtain the desired relative stereochemistry of an azaspiranic tetracyclic backbone. An unexpected reversal or low diastereoselectivity of ( Z)-cinnamyl ester was observed. The diastereoselectivity was controlled by substitution patterns of a styrene region. This result represents a useful guide in aiding the prediction of stereochemical outcome of EECR of α-amino allylic esters.

Total Synthesis and Structural Elucidation of (-)-Cephalezomine G

The first asymmetric synthesis and configurational elucidation of (-)-cephalezomine G was achieved. The highly functionalized Cα-substituted proline derivative was prepared from d-proline as the only chiral source via a C → N → C chirality transfer method consisting of stereoselective N-allylation and [2,3]-Stevens rearrangement. The azaspiranic tetracyclic backbone was constructed using ring-closing metathesis and the Friedel-Crafts reaction. Two contiguous hydroxyl groups were introduced in the later stages.

Sequential cycloaddition and ring expansion reaction of arynes and methylenebenzothiopheneones: synthesis of a benzo-fused eight-membered ring via sulfonium ylides

Efficient construction of benzo-fused eight-membered ring containing sulfur. New reaction profile with sulfonium ylides.

Total synthesis of (±)-galanthamine from GABA through regioselective aryne insertion

The total synthesis of (±)-galanthamine is achieved in ∼5% overall yield using a key regioselective aryne insertion reaction into a GABA (γ-amino butyric acid) derivative.

Formal Synthesis of ent-Cephalotaxine Using a One-Pot Parham-Aldol Sequence

A short formal synthesis of ent-Cephalotaxine is achieved. The approach features a new Lewis acid-mediated [2,3]-Stevens rearrangement of N-allylated prolineamide to generate a key quaternary stereogenic center. Additionally, a one-pot Parham-aldol sequence was developed to rapidly assemble two of the four rings in the cephalotaxine core.

Substitution-Controlled Selective Formation of Hexahydrobenz[ e]isoindoles and 3-Benzazepines via In(OTf)3-Catalyzed Tandem Annulations

A dramatic N-substituent controlled tandem annulation of 2-(2-(2-bromoethyl)phenyl)-1-sulfonylaziridines with 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds has been developed. When the N-substituent was a 4-methylbenzenesulfonyl group (Ts), sequential ring opening of aziridines, nucleophilic substitution, and lactamization took place to provide a series of hexahydrobenz[ e]isoindole compounds in good yields with good diastereoselectivities. By contrast, 3-benzazepine compounds were afforded in good yields via ring opening of aziridines and nucleophilic substitution when the N-substituent was the 4-nitrobenzenesulfonyl group (Ns).

Aryne-based strategy in the total synthesis of naturally occurring polycyclic compounds

This review has outlined the strategies and tactics of using arynes in the total syntheses of polycyclic natural products.

Studies on the interactions of 5-R-3-(2-pyridyl)-1,2,4-triazines with arynes: inverse demand aza-Diels–Alder reaction versus aryne-mediated domino process

The interactions between substituted 5-R-3-(pyridyl-2)-1,2,4-triazines with in situ generated substituted aryne intermediates have been studied.

A domino reaction of 2-isocyanophenyloxyacrylate and aryne to synthesize arenes with vicinal olefin and benzoxazole

An unusual domino reaction of 2-isocyanophenyloxyacrylate and aryne has been disclosed. The present strategy experiences nucleophilic addition, Michael addition, carbon–oxygen cleavage, and cyclization, thus enabling the quick aryne vicinal difunctionalization by the installation of a benzoxazole and an olefin.

Decarbethoxylative Arylation Employing Arynes: A Metal-Free Pathway to Arylfluoroamides

An efficient, metal-free decarbethoxylative arylation protocol for the synthesis of α-aryl-α-fluoroamides from fluoromalonamates, under ambient reaction conditions using aryne as an electrophilic arylating agent, is reported. This decarbethoxylative arylation proceeds under mild conditions and provides a practical and effective entry to a wide range of α-aryl-α-fluoroacetamides. Interestingly, the use of the tert-butyl ester of fluoromalonamate prevented the otherwise rapid decarboxylation step, affording the arylated fluoromalonamate in moderate yield.

Cephalotaxus Alkaloids

Cephalotaxus alkaloids represent a family of plant secondary metabolites known for 60 years. Significant activity against leukemia in mice was demonstrated for extracts of Cephalotaxus. Cephalotaxine (CET) (1), the major alkaloid of this series was isolated from Cephalotaxus drupacea species by Paudler in 1963. The subsequent discovery of promising antitumor activity among new Cephalotaxus derivatives reported by Chinese, Japanese, and American teams triggered extensive structure elucidation and biological studies in this family. The structural feature of this cephalotaxane family relies mainly on its tetracyclic alkaloid backbone, which comprises an azaspiranic 1-azaspiro[4.4]nonane unit (rings C and D) and a benzazepine ring system (rings A and B), which is linked by its C3 alcohol function to a chiral oxygenated side chain by a carboxylic function alpha to a tetrasubstituted carbon center. The botanical distribution of these alkaloids is limited to the Cephalotaxus genus (Cephalotaxaceae). The scope of biological activities of the Cephalotaxus alkaloids is mainly centered on the antileukemic activity of homoharringtonine (HHT) (2), which in particular demonstrated marked benefits in the treatment of orphan myeloid leukemia and was approved as soon as 2009 by European Medicine Agency and by US Food and Drug Administration in 2012. Its exact mechanism of action was partly elucidated and it was early recognized that HHT (2) inhibited protein synthesis at the level of the ribosome machinery. Interestingly, after a latency period of two decades, the topic of Cephalotaxus alkaloids reemerged as a prolific source of new natural structures. To date, more than 70 compounds have been identified and characterized. Synthetic studies also regained attention during the past two decades, and numerous methodologies were developed to access the first semisynthetic HHT (2) of high purity suitable for clinical studies, and then high grade enantiomerically pure CET (1), HHT (2), and analogs.

Au-Catalyzed [2 + 3] Annulation of Enamides with Propargyl Esters: Total Synthesis of Cephalotaxine and Cephalezomine H

A novel Au-catalyzed [2 + 3] annulation reaction of enamides with propargyl esters has been developed, providing a new method for expeditious assembly of synthetically useful functionalized 1-azaspiro[4.4]nonane building blocks. Based on this key annulation, strategic installation of the pivotal azaspirocyclic core, followed by constructing the benzazepine unit via Witkop cyclization, led to the divergent total syntheses of cephalotaxine and cephalezomine H.

Diversity-Oriented Synthesis of Spiroannulated Benzofuran-3-one Scaffold of Leptosphaerin C and Congeners via Aryne Insertion

A concise synthesis of functionalized cyclohexenone-fused spirobenzofuran-3-ones under mild reaction conditions was developed. The reaction proceeds via insertion of aryne into the C-O bond followed by a regioselective intramolecular conjugate addition. The use of silyl-protected acid was crucial for the transformation. This protocol was successfully applied for the synthesis of leptosphaerin C core and its novel analogues.

Diastereoselective Synthesis of Cephalotaxus Esters via Asymmetric Mukaiyama Aldol Reaction

We report a protocol for efficient stereoselective installation of the chiral oxygen-containing tetrasubstituted tertiary carbon stereocenter of the side chain of cephalotaxus esters by means of highly diastereoselective Mukaiyama aldol reactions between α-keto esters (2) and a (Z)-α-chloro ketene silyl acetal. This protocol permitted synthesis of cephalotaxus esters including six natural products in good to excellent yields (up to 94%) with high diastereoselectivities (dr up to 97:3) and could be performed on a multigram scale.

Synthesis of o-Methyl Trifluoromethyl Sulfide Substituted Benzophenones via 1,2-Difunctionalization of Aryne by Insertion into the C-C Bond

An efficient process for the preparation of valuable o-methyl trifluoromethyl sulfide substituted benzophenones has been developed. The transition-metal-free method features insertion of aryne into a C-C σ-bond under mild reaction conditions for the first time to achieve ortho-difunctionalized arenes containing a pharmaceutically important trifluoromethylthio functional group. A wide substrate scope has been demonstrated for the developed protocol.

Synthesis of aryl triflones by insertion of arynes into C–SO2CF3 bonds

A new approach toward the synthesis of aryl triflones was achieved by the formal insertion of arynes into C–SO₂CF₃ bonds.