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Hooshmand SE, Zhang W. Ugi Four-Component Reactions Using Alternative Reactants. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041642. [PMID: 36838630 PMCID: PMC9961709 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The Ugi four-component reaction (Ugi-4CR) undoubtedly is the most prominent multicomponent reaction (MCRs) that has sparked organic chemists' interest in the field. It has been widely used in the synthesis of diverse heterocycle molecules such as potential drugs, natural product analogs, pseudo peptides, macrocycles, and functional materials. The Ugi-4CRs involve the use of an amine, an aldehyde or ketone, an isocyanide, and a carboxylic acid to produce an α-acetamido carboxamide derivative, which has significantly advanced the field of isocyanide-based MCRs. The so-called intermediate nitrilium ion could be trapped by a nucleophile such as azide, N-hydroxyphthalimide, thiol, saccharin, phenol, water, and hydrogen sulfide instead of the original carboxylic acid to allow for a wide variety of Ugi-type reactions to occur.β In addition to isocyanide, there are alternative reagents for the other three components: amine, isocyanide, and aldehyde or ketone. All these alternative components render the Ugi reaction an aptly diversity-oriented synthesis of a myriad of biologically active molecules and complex scaffolds. Consequently, this review will delve deeper into alternative components used in the Ugi MCRs, particularly over the past ten years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyyed Emad Hooshmand
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Physics and Chemistry, Alzahra University, Tehran 1993893973, Iran
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Boston, 100 Morrissey Boulevard, Boston, MA 02125, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-617-287-6147
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2
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Hooshmand SE, Yazdani H, Hulme C. Six‐Component Reactions and Beyond: The Nuts and Bolts. European J Org Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202200569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Hossein Yazdani
- Independent researcher Independent Researcher Tehran IRAN (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF)
| | - Christopher Hulme
- The University of Arizona Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Tucson UNITED STATES
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3
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Lohmann N, Milovanović V, Piekarski DG, García Mancheño O. Metal-free oxoammonium salt-mediated C(sp 3)-H oxidative Ugi-azide multicomponent reaction. Org Biomol Chem 2022; 20:2896-2908. [PMID: 35319061 DOI: 10.1039/d2ob00101b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In this work, an efficient oxidative C(sp3)-H Ugi-azide multicomponent reaction of cyclic benzylic amines to the corresponding α-tetrazolo compounds using a TEMPO salt as mild hydride abstractor-type oxidant is reported. This simple one-pot approach allows the direct functionalization of N-heterocycles such as tetrahydroisoquinolines with a variety of isocyanides and NaN3 as a practical azide source. The reaction proceeds at room temperature and without the need of acid additives, allowing for the use of sensitive substrates, while minimizing isocyanide polymerization to provide the desired heterocycle-tetrazole products in synthetically useful yields (up to 99%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Lohmann
- University of Münster, Organic Chemistry Institute, Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Vesna Milovanović
- University of Münster, Organic Chemistry Institute, Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany. .,University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Agronomy, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Cara Dušana 34, 32000 Čačak, Serbia
| | - Dariusz G Piekarski
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Olga García Mancheño
- University of Münster, Organic Chemistry Institute, Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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4
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Pathan S, Singh GP. Synthesis of novel tetrazole tetrahydrobenzo[b]thiophene via Ugi-MCR: As new antileishmanial prototype. JOURNAL OF SAUDI CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2021.101295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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5
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Flores-Reyes JC, Islas-Jácome A, González-Zamora E. The Ugi three-component reaction and its variants. Org Chem Front 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1qo00313e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A broad variety of α-aminoamide-based compounds have been synthesized via the three-component version of the Ugi reaction (U-3CR) or by any of its variants (Ugi-Zhu-3CR, Orru-3CR, Ugi-4C-3CR, Ugi-Joullié-3CR, GBB-3CR, Ugi-Reissert-3CR, and so on).
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio César Flores-Reyes
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, San Rafael Atlixco 186, Col. Vicentina, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09340, Ciudad de Mexico
| | - Alejandro Islas-Jácome
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, San Rafael Atlixco 186, Col. Vicentina, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09340, Ciudad de Mexico
| | - Eduardo González-Zamora
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, San Rafael Atlixco 186, Col. Vicentina, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09340, Ciudad de Mexico
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6
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Schofield K, Foley C, Hulme C. 5- Endo Trig Oxidative Radical Cyclizations of Ugi-3CR Products toward 1,4-Imidazolidinones. Org Lett 2020; 23:107-112. [PMID: 33306404 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c03785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A 5-endo trig oxidative radical cyclization of benzylamine-derived Ugi three-component reaction products rapidly affords imidazolidinones with three diversity elements. This adaptation of our previously described multicomponent reaction-oxidation methodology further showcases manipulation of the diversity elements in multicomponent reaction products via oxidative radical cyclizations, which generates highly decorated privileged heterocycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Schofield
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| | - Christopher Foley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| | - Christopher Hulme
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
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7
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Tripolitsiotis NP, Thomaidi M, Neochoritis CG. The Ugi Three‐Component Reaction; a Valuable Tool in Modern Organic Synthesis. European J Org Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202001157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Thomaidi
- Chemistry Department School of Science and Engineering University of Crete 70013 Heraklion Greece
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8
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Synthesis of 2-arylideneimidazo[1,2-a]pyrazine-3,6,8(2H,5H,7H)-triones as a result of oxidation of 4-arylidene-2-methyl-1H-imidazol-5(4H)-ones with selenium dioxide. Chem Heterocycl Compd (N Y) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10593-020-02634-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Li D, Shen X, Lei J. Metal-Free Iodine/TEMPO-Mediated Aerobic Oxidative Ugi-Type Multicomponent Reactions with Tertiary Amines. J Org Chem 2019; 85:2466-2475. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.9b03168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dengke Li
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Center for Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau Chemical Functional Materials and Pollution Control, Qujing Normal University, Qujing 655011, Yunnan, China
| | - Xianfu Shen
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Center for Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau Chemical Functional Materials and Pollution Control, Qujing Normal University, Qujing 655011, Yunnan, China
| | - Jian Lei
- College of Chemical Engineering and Material, Quanzhou Normal University, Quanzhou 362000, Fujian, China
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Synthesis of N-heterocycles containing 1,5-disubstituted-1H-tetrazole via post-Ugi-azide reaction. Mol Divers 2019; 24:841-853. [PMID: 31222498 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-019-09972-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Ugi-azide four-component reaction (UA-4CR) as development on Ugi four-component reaction (U-4CR) is the condensation reaction involving an aldehyde, an amine, an isocyanide, and an azide source. Nowadays, UA-4CR has been employed for the efficient and facile production of 1,5-disubstituted-1H-tetrazoles (1,5-DS-1H-Ts). Interestingly, the combination of 1,5-DS-1H-Ts with suitable post-transformations in a tandem manner results in the construction of various classes of heterocyclic compounds bearing 1,5-DS-1H-T moiety. This review aims to provide the application of diverse post-Ugi-azide reaction in the preparation of different N-heterocyclic compounds bearing 1,5-DS-1H-T such as substituted and fused 1,5-DS-1H-Ts.
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Liu MG, Liu N, Xu WH, Wang L. Tandem reaction strategy of the Passerini/Wittig reaction based on the in situ capture of isocyanides: One-pot synthesis of heterocycles. Tetrahedron 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2019.03.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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12
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Khalesi M, Ziyaei Halimehjani A, Martens J. Synthesis of a novel category of pseudo-peptides using an Ugi three-component reaction of levulinic acid as bifunctional substrate, amines, and amino acid-based isocyanides. Beilstein J Org Chem 2019; 15:852-857. [PMID: 31019577 PMCID: PMC6466677 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.15.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthesis of a novel category of pseudo-peptides via intramolecular Ugi reaction of levulinic acid (4-oxopentanoic acid), aromatic and aliphatic amines, and amino acid-based isocyanides is reported. Levulinic acid was applied as a bifunctional substrate containing both carbonyl and acid moieties suitable for the Ugi reaction. This article provides a facile and convenient one-pot procedure for the synthesis of peptide-like heterocyclic molecules containing 2-pyrrolidone (γ-lactam), amide and ester functional groups with good to excellent yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Khalesi
- Faculty of Chemistry, Kharazmi University, P.O. Box 15719-14911, 49 Mofateh Street, Tehran, Iran
| | - Azim Ziyaei Halimehjani
- Faculty of Chemistry, Kharazmi University, P.O. Box 15719-14911, 49 Mofateh Street, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jürgen Martens
- Institut für Chemie (IfC), Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, P.O. Box 2503, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany
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13
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Abstract
Tetrazole derivatives are a prime class of heterocycles, very important to medicinal chemistry and drug design due to not only their bioisosterism to carboxylic acid and amide moieties but also to their metabolic stability and other beneficial physicochemical properties. Although more than 20 FDA-approved drugs contain 1 H- or 2 H-tetrazole substituents, their exact binding mode, structural biology, 3D conformations, and in general their chemical behavior is not fully understood. Importantly, multicomponent reaction (MCR) chemistry offers convergent access to multiple tetrazole scaffolds providing the three important elements of novelty, diversity, and complexity, yet MCR pathways to tetrazoles are far from completely explored. Here, we review the use of multicomponent reactions for the preparation of substituted tetrazole derivatives. We highlight specific applications and general trends holding therein and discuss synthetic approaches and their value by analyzing scope and limitations, and also enlighten their receptor binding mode. Finally, we estimated the prospects of further research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantinos G. Neochoritis
- Drug Design Group, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ting Zhao
- Drug Design Group, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Dömling
- Drug Design Group, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
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14
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Cao J, Yang F, Sun J, Huang Y, Yan CG. Construction of Unique Eight- or Nine-Membered Polyheterocyclic Systems via Multicomponent Reaction of l-Proline, Alkyl Propiolate, and Isatin. J Org Chem 2018; 84:622-635. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.8b02457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Cao
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
| | - Fan Yang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
| | - Jing Sun
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
| | - Ying Huang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
| | - Chao-Guo Yan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
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15
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Esmati N, Maddirala AR, Hussein N, Amawi H, Tiwari AK, Andreana PR. Efficient syntheses and anti-cancer activity of xenortides A-D including ent/epi-stereoisomers. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:5332-5342. [PMID: 29999086 DOI: 10.1039/c8ob00452h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A one-pot, two-step, total synthesis of naturally occurring xenortides A, B, C and D, (Xens A-D) isolated from the bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila, and an entire complementary set of stereoisomers, has been achieved. Compounds were synthesized utilizing an isocyanide-based Ugi 4-CR followed by facile N-Boc deprotection. The reaction sequence took advantage of the chiral pool of N-Boc protected amino acids (l-Leu/Val and d-Leu/Val) with aryl isocyanides, phenyl acetaldehyde and methylamine giving the desired Xens A-D (A and B >98% ee) and all subsequent stereoisomers in reasonable yields upon deprotection followed by separation of diastereomers. Also, detailed mechanistic insights for diastereoselectivity of (-)-Xen A, as a model in the Ugi 4-CR, has been described. Moreover, for the first time, this focused library was screened for cytotoxicity against a panel of epithelial cancer cell lines as well as normal cell lines with an MTT proliferation assay. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) study demonstrated that tryptamides Xen B and D were more active than phenylethylamides Xen A and C. Furthermore, (-)-Xen B (IC50 = 19-25 μM) and ent-(+)-Xen D (IC50 = 21-26 μM) gave the highest cytotoxicity and they were also found to be non-toxic toward normal cells. Importantly, the SAR results indicate that the stereochemistry at C8 and C11 in (-)-Xen B and ent-(+)-Xen D play a critical role in cytotoxic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Esmati
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and School of Green Chemistry and Engineering, The University of Toledo, 2801 W. Bancroft St, Toledo, OH 43606, USA.
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16
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Foley C, Shaw A, Hulme C. Aza-Riley Oxidation of Ugi-Azide and Ugi-3CR Products toward Vicinal Tricarbonyl Amides: Two-Step MCR-Oxidation Methodology Accessing Functionalized α,β-Diketoamides and α,β-Diketotetrazoles. Org Lett 2018; 20:1275-1278. [PMID: 29466017 PMCID: PMC6424580 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.7b03977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Direct oxidative deamination of glyoxal-derived Ugi-azide and Ugi three-component reaction products readily affords vicinal tricarbonyls (α,β-diketoamides) and α,β-diketotetrazoles with two diversity elements. This significant extension of our previously described multicomponent reaction-oxidative deamination methodology is proposed to proceed through a mechanistically distinct SeO2-mediated C-N oxidation derived from an active enol of α-amino-β-ketone systems, effectively an aza-Riley oxidation. This methodology accesses diverse VTC systems from prototypical amines, glyoxaldehydes, and isocyanide building blocks in a mere two steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Foley
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, College of Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| | - Arthur Shaw
- Division of Drug Discovery & Development, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| | - Christopher Hulme
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, College of Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States, Division of Drug Discovery & Development, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States,Corresponding Author
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17
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Ziyaei Halimehjani A, Sharifi M. Synthesis of a novel category of Ugi adducts using succinic acid, succinic anhydride and maleic anhydride and their application in post-Ugi reactions for synthesis of functionalized piperazine 2,5-diones. Tetrahedron 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2017.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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18
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Baleeva NS, Levina EA, Baranov MS. Synthesis of 2-arylidene-6,7-dihydroimidazo[1,2-a]pyrazine-3,8(2H,5H)-diones by oxidation of 4-arylidene-2-methyl-1H-imidazol-5(4H)-ones with selenium dioxide. Chem Heterocycl Compd (N Y) 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10593-017-2149-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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19
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Santhosh L, Nagamangala SR, Thimmalapura VM, Vommina SV. Synthesis of 1, 5- Disubstituted TetrazoleviaUgi Azide Reaction: An Asymmetric Induction Approach. ChemistrySelect 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201701032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. Santhosh
- Department of Studies in Chemistry, Central College Campus; Bangalore University; Dr. B. R. AmbedkarVeedhi Bangalore 560001 India
| | - Sagar R. Nagamangala
- Department of Studies in Chemistry, Central College Campus; Bangalore University; Dr. B. R. AmbedkarVeedhi Bangalore 560001 India
| | - Vishwanatha M. Thimmalapura
- Department of Studies in Chemistry, Central College Campus; Bangalore University; Dr. B. R. AmbedkarVeedhi Bangalore 560001 India
| | - Sureshbabu V. Vommina
- Department of Studies in Chemistry, Central College Campus; Bangalore University; Dr. B. R. AmbedkarVeedhi Bangalore 560001 India
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Foley C, Shaw A, Hulme C. Oxidative Deaminations and Deisatinylations of Ugi-Azide and Ugi-3CR Products: A Two-Step MCR-Oxidation Protocol toward Functionalized α-Ketoamides and α-Ketotetrazoles. Org Lett 2017; 19:2238-2241. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.7b00710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Foley
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Science, and ‡Department of
Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| | - Arthur Shaw
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Science, and ‡Department of
Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| | - Christopher Hulme
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Science, and ‡Department of
Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
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22
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Collet JW, Foley C, Shaw AY, Orru RVA, Ruijter E, Hulme C. Copper(i) catalyzed oxidative hydrolysis of Ugi 3-component and Ugi-azide reaction products towards 2° α-ketoamides and α-ketotetrazoles. Org Biomol Chem 2017; 15:6132-6135. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ob00881c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Catalytic Cu(i) mediated C–N oxidation of Ugi-3-component and Ugi-azide reaction products affords 2° α-ketoamides 1 and α-ketotetrazoles 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jurriën W. Collet
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
- The University of Arizona
- Tucson
- USA
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences
| | - Christopher Foley
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
- The University of Arizona
- Tucson
- USA
| | - Arthur Y. Shaw
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
- The University of Arizona
- Tucson
- USA
| | - Romano V. A. Orru
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences
- VU University Amsterdam
- Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Eelco Ruijter
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences
- VU University Amsterdam
- Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Christopher Hulme
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
- The University of Arizona
- Tucson
- USA
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