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The Single-Step Fabrication of a Poly (Sodium Vinylsulfonate)-Grafted Polyetheretherketone Surface to Ameliorate Its Osteogenic Activity. COATINGS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings12060868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is considered a potential material for replacing traditional biomedical metals used in orthopedic implants because of its similar elastic modulus to human bone. However, the poor osteogenic activity of PEEK itself hinders its clinical application. In this study, a PEEK surface was grafted with poly (sodium vinylsulfonate) through a single-step ultraviolet-initiated graft polymerization method to ameliorate its osteogenic activity. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and water contact angle measurements confirmed that different amounts of poly (sodium vinylsulfonate) were grafted onto the PEEK surface upon varying the ultraviolet irradiation time. Atomic force microscopy revealed that the surface topography and roughness of PEEK before and after surface grafting did not change significantly. The in vitro results showed that grafting with poly (sodium vinylsulfonate) rendered the PEEK surface with improved MC3T3-E1 osteoblast compatibility and osteogenic activity. Moreover, a PEEK surface with a higher grafting amount of poly (sodium vinylsulfonate) was observed to be more beneficial to the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Collectively, by employing this simple and one-step method, the osteogenic activity of PEEK can be enhanced, paving the way for the clinical application of PEEK in orthopedic implants.
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Yerneni SS, Lathwal S, Cuthbert J, Kapil K, Szczepaniak G, Jeong J, Das SR, Campbell PG, Matyjaszewski K. Controlled Release of Exosomes Using Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization-Based Hydrogels. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:1713-1722. [PMID: 35302760 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are 30-200 nm sized extracellular vesicles that are increasingly recognized as potential drug delivery vehicles. However, exogenous exosomes are rapidly cleared from the blood upon intravenous delivery, which limits their therapeutic potential. Here, we report bioactive exosome-tethered poly(ethylene oxide)-based hydrogels for the localized delivery of therapeutic exosomes. Using cholesterol-modified DNA tethers, the lipid membrane of exosomes was functionalized with initiators to graft polymers in the presence of additional initiators and crosslinker using photoinduced atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). This strategy of tethering exosomes within the hydrogel network allowed their controlled release over a period of 1 month, which was much longer than physically entrapped exosomes. Exosome release profile was tuned by varying the crosslinking density of the polymer network and the use of photocleavable tethers allowed stimuli-responsive release of exosomes. The therapeutic potential of the hydrogels was assessed by evaluating the osteogenic potential of bone morphogenetic protein 2-loaded exosomes on C2C12 and MC3T3-E1 cells. Thus, ATRP-based exosome-tethered hydrogels represent a tunable platform with improved efficacy and an extended-release profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saigopalakrishna S Yerneni
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Engineering Research Accelerator, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Sushil Lathwal
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States.,The Center for Nucleic Acids Science & Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Julia Cuthbert
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Kriti Kapil
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Grzegorz Szczepaniak
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Jaepil Jeong
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States.,The Center for Nucleic Acids Science & Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Subha R Das
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States.,The Center for Nucleic Acids Science & Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Phil G Campbell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Engineering Research Accelerator, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
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Chen L, Wang B, Ren H, Wu Y, Lyu D, Ouyang Y, Zhang Q, Yan Y. Arg-Gly-Asp peptide functionalized poly-amino acid/ poly (p-benzamide) copolymer with enhanced mechanical properties and osteogenicity. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2022; 133:112627. [PMID: 35527153 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Poly-amino acid (PAA) is a promising biomaterial in biomedical engineering due to its similar amide bond structure to collagen and excellent biocompatibility, but the lack of osteogenic activity and inferior mechanical strength limit its long-term application in orthopedics. In this study, a poly-amino acid/poly (p-benzamide) (PAA-PBA) copolymer with high mechanical strength was designed and fabricated by the method of solution polymerization. The chain structures, thermal properties and mechanical properties of these polymers were evaluated and results showed that PBA greatly promoted the mechanical properties of PAA, and the copolymer performed the maximum mechanical strengths with compressive strength, bending strength and tensile strength of 123 MPa, 107 MPa and, 95 MPa, respectively. To increase the bioactivity of surface, a bioactive coating that consists of poly-(dopamine) (PDA) nanolayers and tripeptide Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic acid (RGD) on sulfonated PAA-PBA copolymer was created. A porous structure appeared on the surface after modification, the surface roughness and hydrophilicity of copolymer has been improved obviously after introducing PDA and RGD peptide coating. The in vitro bioactivity evaluation demonstrated that the RGD-functionalized sample showed a significantly improved ability to promote bone apatite mineralization, cell adhesion, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. In a word, such a strategy of material synthesis and surface modification method shows a great potential for broadening the use of PAA in the application of load-bearing bone substitute biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lichao Chen
- School of chemical engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China
| | - Bo Wang
- School of chemical engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China
| | - Haohao Ren
- College of Physical Science and Technology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China
| | - Yanan Wu
- College of Physical Science and Technology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China
| | - Defu Lyu
- College of Physical Science and Technology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China
| | - Yanan Ouyang
- School of chemical engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China
| | - Qiyi Zhang
- School of chemical engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China.
| | - Yonggang Yan
- College of Physical Science and Technology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, PR China.
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Loenen ACY, Peters MJM, Bevers RTJ, Schaffrath C, van Haver E, Cuijpers VMJI, Rademakers T, van Rietbergen B, Willems PC, Arts JJ. Early bone ingrowth and segmental stability of a trussed titanium cage versus a polyether ether ketone cage in an ovine lumbar interbody fusion model. Spine J 2022; 22:174-182. [PMID: 34274502 DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2021.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CONTEXT Lumbar interbody fusion is an effective treatment for unstable spinal segments. However, the time needed to establish a solid bony interbody fusion between the two vertebrae may be longer than twelve months after surgery. During this time window, the instrumented spinal segment is assumed to be at increased risk for instability related complications such as cage migration or subsidence. It is hypothesized that the design of new interbody cages that enable direct osseointegration of the cage at the vertebral endplates, without requiring full bony fusion between the two vertebral endplates, might shorten the time window that the instrumented spinal segment is susceptible to failure. PURPOSE To quantify the bone ingrowth and resulting segmental stability during consolidation of lumbar interbody fusion using two different cage types. STUDY DESIGN Preclinical ovine model. METHODS Seven skeletally mature sheep underwent bi-segmental lumbar interbody fusion surgery with one conventional polyether ether ketone (PEEK) cage, and one newly developed trussed titanium (TT) cage. After a postoperative time period of 13 weeks, non-destructive range of motion testing, and histologic analysis was performed. Additionally, sample specific finite element (FE) analysis was performed to predict the stability of the interbody fusion region alone. RESULTS Physiological movement of complete spinal motion segments did not reveal significant differences between the segments operated with PEEK and TT cages. The onset of creeping substitution within the cage seemed to be sooner for PEEK cages, which led to significantly higher bone volume over total volume (BV/TV) compared with the TT cages. TT cages showed significantly more direct bone to implant contact (BIC). Although the mean stability of the interbody fusion region alone was not statistically different between the PEEK and TT cages, the variation within the cage types illustrated an all-or-nothing response for the PEEK cages while a more gradual increase in stability was found for the TT cages. CONCLUSIONS Spinal segments operated with conventional PEEK cages were not different from those operated with newly developed TT cages in terms of segmental stability but did show a different mechanism of bone ingrowth and attachment. Based on the differences in development of bony fusion, we hypothesize that TT cages might facilitate increased early segmental stability by direct osseointegration of the cage at the vertebral endplates without requiring complete bony bridging through the cage. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Interbody cage type affects the consolidation process of spinal interbody fusion. Whether different consolidation processes of spinal interbody fusion result in clinically significant differences requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjan C Y Loenen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopedics, CAPHRI, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Orthopedic Biomechanics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Marloes J M Peters
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopedics, CAPHRI, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Raymond T J Bevers
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopedics, CAPHRI, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Vincent M J I Cuijpers
- Department of Biomaterials, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Timo Rademakers
- Department of Cell Biology-Inspired Tissue Engineering, MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Bert van Rietbergen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopedics, CAPHRI, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Orthopedic Biomechanics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Paul C Willems
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopedics, CAPHRI, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Jacobus J Arts
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopedics, CAPHRI, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Orthopedic Biomechanics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
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Fu L, Jafari H, Gießl M, Yerneni SS, Sun M, Wang Z, Liu T, Kapil K, Cheng BC, Yu A, Averick SE, Matyjaszewski K. Grafting Polymer Brushes by ATRP from Functionalized Poly(ether ether ketone) Microparticles. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2021; 32:3948-3954. [PMID: 34924736 PMCID: PMC8680496 DOI: 10.1002/pat.5405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic with excellent mechanical and chemical properties. PEEK exhibits a high degree of resistance to thermal, chemical, and bio-degradation. PEEK is used as biomaterial in the field of orthopaedic and dental implants; however, due to its intrinsic hydrophobicity and inert surface, PEEK does not effectively support bone growth. Therefore, new methods to modify PEEK's surface to improve osseointegration are key to next generation polymer implant materials. Unfortunately, PEEK is a challenging material to both modify and subsequently characterize thus stymieing efforts to improve PEEK osseointegration. In this manuscript, we demonstrate how surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) can be used to modify novel PEEK microparticles (PMP). The hard core-soft shell microparticles were synthesized and characterized by DLS, ATR-IR, XPS and TEM, indicating the grafted materials increased solubility and stability in a range of solvents. The discovered surface grafted PMP can be used as compatibilizers for the polymer-tissue interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liye Fu
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Hossein Jafari
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Michael Gießl
- Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitatsstraße 10, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | | | - Mingkang Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Zongyu Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Tong Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Kriti Kapil
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Boyle C. Cheng
- Allegheny Health Network - Neuroscience Institute, 320 E. North Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | - Alexander Yu
- Allegheny Health Network - Neuroscience Institute, 320 E. North Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | - Saadyah E. Averick
- Allegheny Health Network - Neuroscience Institute, 320 E. North Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
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Yerneni SS, Adamik J, Weiss LE, Campbell PG. Cell trafficking and regulation of osteoblastogenesis by extracellular vesicle associated bone morphogenetic protein 2. J Extracell Vesicles 2021; 10:e12155. [PMID: 34669267 PMCID: PMC8528095 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are characterized by complex cargo composition and carry a wide array of signalling cargo, including growth factors (GFs). Beyond surface-associated GFs, it is unclear if EV intralumenal growth factors are biologically active. Here, bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP2), loaded directly into the lumen of EVs designated engineered BMP2-EVs (eBMP2-EVs), was comprehensively characterized including its regulation of osteoblastogenesis. eBMP2-EVs and non-EV 'free' BMP2 were observed to similarly regulate osteoblastogenesis. Furthermore, cell trafficking experiments suggest rapid BMP2 recycling and its extracellular release as 'free' BMP2 and natural occurring BMP2-EVs (nBMP2-EVs), with both being osteogenic. Interestingly, BMP2 occurs on the EV surface of nBMP2-EVs and is susceptible to proteolysis, inhibition by noggin and complete dissociation from nBMP2-EVs over 3 days. Whereas, within the eBMP2-EVs, BMP2 is protected from proteolysis, inhibition by noggin and is retained in EV lumen at 100% for the first 24 h and ∼80% after 10 days. Similar to 'free' BMP2, bioprinted eBMP2-EV microenvironments induced osteogenesis in vitro and in vivo in spatial registration to the printed patterns. Taken together, BMP2 signalling involves dynamic BMP2 cell trafficking in and out of the cell involving EVs, with distinct differences between these nBMP2-EVs and eBMP2-EVs attributable to the BMP2 cargo location with EVs. Lastly, eBMP2-EVs appear to deliver BMP2 directly into the cytoplasm, initiating BMP2 signalling within the cell, bypassing its cell surface receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juraj Adamik
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of MedicineUPMC Hillman Cancer CenterPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Lee E. Weiss
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
- The Robotics InstituteCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
- The McGowan Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Phil G. Campbell
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
- The McGowan Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
- Engineering Research Accelerator, College of EngineeringCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
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Yuan B, Wang L, Zhao R, Yang X, Yang X, Zhu X, Liu L, Zhang K, Song Y, Zhang X. A biomimetically hierarchical polyetherketoneketone scaffold for osteoporotic bone repair. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eabc4704. [PMID: 33310848 PMCID: PMC7732183 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abc4704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Osteoporotic fractures are prevalent in society, and their incidence appears to be increasing as the worldwide population ages. However, conventional bone repair materials hardly satisfy the requirements for the repair of pathological fractures. Here, we developed a biomimetic polyetherketoneketone scaffold with a functionalized strontium-doped nanohydroxyapatite coating for osteoporotic bone defect applications. The scaffold has a hierarchically porous architecture and mechanical strength similar to that of osteoporotic trabecular bone. In vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated that the scaffold could promote osteoporotic bone regeneration and delay adjacent bone loss via regulating both osteoblasts and osteoclasts. In addition, the correlations between multiple preimplantation and postimplantation parameters were evaluated to determine the potential predictors of in vivo performance of the material. The current work not only develops a promising candidate for osteoporotic bone repair but also provides a viable approach for designing other functional biomaterials and predicting their translational value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Linnan Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Rui Zhao
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Xi Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
| | - Xiangdong Zhu
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
| | - Limin Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Yueming Song
- Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xingdong Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
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Fu L, Omi M, Sun M, Cheng B, Mao G, Liu T, Mendonça G, Averick SE, Mishina Y, Matyjaszewski K. Covalent Attachment of P15 Peptide to Ti Alloy Surface Modified with Polymer to Enhance Osseointegration of Implants. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:38531-38536. [PMID: 31599570 PMCID: PMC6993989 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Titanium (Ti) and its alloys are used in orthopedic and dental implants due to their excellent physical properties and biocompatibility. Although Ti exhibits superior osteoconductive properties compared to those of polymer-based implants, improved bone-on growth properties are required for enhanced surgical outcomes and improved recovery surgical interventions. Herein, we demonstrate a novel surface modification strategy to enhance the osteoconductivity of Ti surfaces through the grafting-from procedure of a reactive copolymer via surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP). Then, postpolymerization conjugation of the P15 peptide, an osteoblast binding motif, was successfully carried out. Subsequent in vitro studies revealed that the surface modification promoted osteoblast attachment on the Ti discs at 6 and 24 h. Moreover, mineral matrix deposition by osteoblasts was greater for the surface-modified Ti than for plain Ti and P15 randomly absorbed onto the Ti surface. These results suggest that the strategy for postpolymerization incorporation of P15 onto a Ti surface with a polymer interface may provide improved osseointegration outcomes, leading to enhanced quality of life for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liye Fu
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Maiko Omi
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences & Prothodontics, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Mingkang Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Boyle Cheng
- Neuroscience Disruptive Research Lab, Allegheny Health Network, 320 East North Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | - Gordon Mao
- Neuroscience Disruptive Research Lab, Allegheny Health Network, 320 East North Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | - Tong Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Gustavo Mendonça
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences & Prothodontics, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Saadyah E. Averick
- Neuroscience Disruptive Research Lab, Allegheny Health Network, 320 East North Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | - Yuji Mishina
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences & Prothodontics, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
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