Janus Micromotors Coated with 2D Nanomaterials as Dynamic Interfaces for (Bio)-Sensing

Modular Micromotor Fabrication with Self-Focusing Lithography

Synthetic Janus micro/nanomotors can efficiently convert ambient energy into asymmetrical self-propulsive force, overcoming random thermal fluctuations and enabling autonomous migration. Further modifications to the motors can equip them with different functional modules to meet different needs. However, developing a versatile and high-yield fabrication method for multifunctional Janus micromotors remains challenging. In this study, a modular fabrication approach for micromotors with a particle-tip structure based on the self-focusing lithography induced by an array of TiO2 microspheres is presented. By adjusting the tip composition or loading, precise programming of motor functionality is achieved, allowing for various capabilities such as photoredox reaction-induced propulsion, fluorescent imaging, electric and magnetic navigation. Furthermore, the flexibility of this fabrication method by selectively loading materials onto two tips is demonstrated to achieve multifunctionality within a micromotor unit. This study proposes a straightforward and versatile approach for modular functional micromotors.

First principles design of two dimensional TiSSe Janus drug delivery system for nitrosourea

In this paper, we delved into the exploration of a novel drug delivery platform for nitrosourea, leveraging a Janus-structured two-dimensional material, TiSSe, as the carrier. Our approach was grounded in a comprehensive application of first-principles computational methods. By evaluating the adsorption energies across a spectrum of potential configurations, we demonstrated the favorable attributes of TiSSe as a carrier for nitrosourea. Our in-depth examination of the electronic structure unveiled intriguing insights. The Janus nature of TiSSe imparts distinct adsorption profiles to nitrosourea molecules at the sulfur (S) and selenium (Se) terminated surfaces. This disparity in electronic properties not only facilitates precise detection but also helps the design of more intriguing two-dimensional materials.

Advanced materials for micro/nanorobotics

Autonomous micro/nanorobots capable of performing programmed missions are at the forefront of next-generation micromachinery. These small robotic systems are predominantly constructed using functional components sourced from micro- and nanoscale materials; therefore, combining them with various advanced materials represents a pivotal direction toward achieving a higher level of intelligence and multifunctionality. This review provides a comprehensive overview of advanced materials for innovative micro/nanorobotics, focusing on the five families of materials that have witnessed the most rapid advancements over the last decade: two-dimensional materials, metal-organic frameworks, semiconductors, polymers, and biological cells. Their unique physicochemical, mechanical, optical, and biological properties have been integrated into micro/nanorobots to achieve greater maneuverability, programmability, intelligence, and multifunctionality in collective behaviors. The design and fabrication methods for hybrid robotic systems are discussed based on the material categories. In addition, their promising potential for powering motion and/or (multi-)functionality is described and the fundamental principles underlying them are explained. Finally, their extensive use in a variety of applications, including environmental remediation, (bio)sensing, therapeutics, etc., and remaining challenges and perspectives for future research are discussed.

Ferroptosis-inducing nanomedicine and targeted short peptide for synergistic treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

The poor prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is still an urgent challenge to be solved worldwide. Hence, assembling drugs and targeted short peptides together to construct a novel medicine delivery strategy is crucial for targeted and synergy therapy of HCC. Herein, a high-efficiency nanomedicine delivery strategy has been constructed by combining graphdiyne oxide (GDYO) as a drug-loaded platform, specific peptide (SP94-PEG) as a spear to target HCC cells, sorafenib, doxorubicin-Fe2+ (DOX-Fe2+), and siRNA (SLC7A11-i) as weapons to exert a three-path synergistic attack against HCC cells. In this work, SP94-PEG and GDYO form nanosheets with HCC-targeting properties, the chemotherapeutic drug DOX linked to ferrous ions increases the free iron pool in HCC cells and synergizes with sorafenib to induce cell ferroptosis. As a key gene of ferroptosis, interference with the expression of SLC7A11 makes the ferroptosis effect in HCC cells easier, stronger, and more durable. Through gene interference, drug synergy, and short peptide targeting, the toxic side effects of chemotherapy drugs are reduced. The multifunctional nanomedicine GDYO@SP94/DOX-Fe2+/sorafenib/SLC7A11-i (MNMG) possesses the advantages of strong targeting, good stability, the ability to continuously induce tumor cell ferroptosis and has potential clinical application value, which is different from traditional drugs.

Untethered Microgrippers for Precision Medicine

Microgrippers, a branch of micro/nanorobots, refer to motile miniaturized machines that are of a size in the range of several to hundreds of micrometers. Compared with tethered grippers or other microscopic diagnostic and surgical equipment, untethered microgrippers play an indispensable role in biomedical applications because of their characteristics such as miniaturized size, dexterous shape tranformation, and  controllable motion, which enables the microgrippers to enter hard-to-reach regions to execute specific medical tasks for disease diagnosis and treatment. To date, numerous medical microgrippers are developed, and their potential in cell manipulation, targeted drug delivery, biopsy, and minimally invasive surgery  are explored. To achieve controlled locomotion and efficient target-oriented actions, the materials, size, microarchitecture, and morphology of microgrippers shall be deliberately designed. In this review, the authors summarizes the latest progress in untethered micrometer-scale grippers. The working mechanisms of shape-morphing and actuation methods for effective movement are first introduced. Then, the design principle and state-of-the-art fabrication techniques of microgrippers are discussed. Finally, their applications in the precise medicine are highlighted, followed by offering future perspectives for the development of untethered medical microgrippers.

Magnetic Janus micromotors for fluorescence biosensing of tacrolimus in oral fluids

Tacrolimus (FK506) is a macrolide lactone immunosuppressive drug that is commonly used in transplanted patients to avoid organ rejection. FK506 exhibits high inter- and intra-patient pharmacokinetic variability, making monitoring necessary for organ graft survival. This work describes the development of a novel bioassay for monitoring FK506. The bioassay is based on using polycaprolactone-based (PCL) magnetic Janus micromotors and a recombinant chimera receptor that incorporates the immunophilin tacrolimus binding protein 1A (FKBP1A) tagged with Emerald Green Fluorescent Protein (EmGFP). The approach relies on a fluorescence competitive bioassay between the drug and the micromotors decorated with a carboxylated FK506 toward the specific site of the fluorescent immunophilin. The proposed homogeneous assay could be performed in a single step without washing steps to separate the unbound receptor. The proposed approach fits the therapeutic requirements, showing a limit of detection of 0.8 ng/mL and a wide dynamic range of up to 90 ng/mL. Assay selectivity was evaluated by measuring the competitive inhibition curves with other immunosuppressive drugs usually co-administered with FK506. The magnetic propulsion mechanism allows for efficient operation in raw samples without damaging the biological binding receptor (FKBP1A-EmGFP). The enhanced target recognition and micromixing strategies hold considerable potential for FK506 monitoring in practical clinical use.

Emerging Roles of Microrobots for Enhancing the Sensitivity of Biosensors

To meet the increasing needs of point-of-care testing in clinical diagnosis and daily health monitoring, numerous cutting-edge techniques have emerged to upgrade current portable biosensors with higher sensitivity, smaller size, and better intelligence. In particular, due to the controlled locomotion characteristics in the micro/nano scale, microrobots can effectively enhance the sensitivity of biosensors by disrupting conventional passive diffusion into an active enrichment during the test. In addition, microrobots are ideal to create biosensors with functions of on-demand delivery, transportation, and multi-objective detections with the capability of actively controlled motion. In this review, five types of portable biosensors and their integration with microrobots are critically introduced. Microrobots can enhance the detection signal in fluorescence intensity and surface-enhanced Raman scattering detection via the active enrichment. The existence and quantity of detection substances also affect the motion state of microrobots for the locomotion-based detection. In addition, microrobots realize the indirect detection of the bio-molecules by functionalizing their surfaces in the electrochemical current and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy detections. We pay a special focus on the roles of microrobots with active locomotion to enhance the detection performance of portable sensors. At last, perspectives and future trends of microrobots in biosensing are also discussed.

Intelligent sensing based on active micro/nanomotors

In the microscopic world, synthetic micro/nanomotors (MNMs) can convert a variety of energy sources into driving forces to help humans perform a number of complex tasks with greater ease and efficiency. These tiny machines have attracted tremendous attention in the field of drug delivery, minimally invasive surgery, in vivo sampling, and environmental management. By modifying their surface materials and functionalizing them with bioactive agents, these MNMs can also be transformed into dynamic micro/nano-biosensors that can detect biomolecules in real-time with high sensitivity. The extensive range of operations and uses combined with their minuscule size have opened up new avenues for tackling intricate analytical difficulties. Here, in this review, various driving methods are briefly introduced, followed by a focus on intelligent detection techniques based on MNMs. And we discuss the distinctive advantages, current issues, and challenges associated with MNM-based intelligent detection. It is believed that the future advancements of MNMs will greatly impact the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases.

Self-Sustained Rotation of Lorentz Force-Driven Janus Systems

Rotation is an interesting type of motion that is currently involved in many technological applications. In this frame, different and sophisticated external stimuli to induce rotation have been developed. In this work, we have designed a simple and original self-propelled bimetallic Janus rotor powered by the synergy between a spontaneous electric and ionic current, produced by two coupled redox reactions, and a magnetic field, placed orthogonal to the surface of the device. Such a combination induces a magnetohydrodynamic vortex at each extremity of the rotor arm, which generates an overall driving force able to propel the rotor. Furthermore, the motion of the self-polarized object can be controlled by the direction of the spontaneous electric current or the orientation of the external magnetic field, resulting in a predictable clockwise or anticlockwise motion. In addition, these devices exhibit directional corkscrew-type displacement, when representing their displacement as a function of time, producing time-space specular behavior. The concept can be used to design alternative self-mixing systems for a variety of (micro)fluidic equipment.

An electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of Glypican-3 based on enzymatic ferrocene-tyramine deposition reaction

An ultrasensitive electrochemical immunosensor based on signal amplification of the deposition of the electroactive ferrocene-tyramine (Fc-Tyr) molecule, catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase (HRP), was constructed for the detection of the liver cancer marker Glypican-3 (GPC3). Functional electroactive molecule Fc-Tyr is reported to exhibit both the enzymatic cascade catalytic activity of tyramine signal amplification (TSA) and the excellent redox properties of ferrocene. In terms of design, the low matrix effects inherent in using the magnetic bead platforms, a quasi-homogeneous system, allowed capturing the target protein GPC3 without sample pretreatment, and loading HRP to trigger the TSA, which induced a large amount of Fc-Tyr deposited on the electrode surface layer by layer as a signal probe for the detection of GPC3. The concept of Fc-Tyr as an electroactive label was validated, GPC3 biosensor exhibited high selectivity and sensitivity to GPC3 in the range of 0.1 ng mL^-1-1 μg mL^-1. Finally, the sensor was used simultaneously with ELISA to assess GPC3 levels in the serum of clinical liver cancer patients, and the results showed consistency, with a recovery of 98.33-105.35% and a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 4.38-8.18%, providing a theoretical basis for achieving portable, rapid and point of care testing (POCT) of tumor markers.

Smartphone-Based Photothermal Lateral Flow Immunoassay Using Rhenium Diselenide Nanosheet

Developing a rapid antibody-based detection method is of great importance for preventing and controlling the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Among the antibody-based methods for point-of-care (POC) detection, lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) is the most widely used. However, LFIA still has the disadvantage of low sensitivity. In this work, an ReSe2 nanosheet with a thickness of 10-20 nm was prepared by liquid exfoliation and applied as the label in a photothermal LFIA due to its high photothermal conversion efficiency and high photothermal stability. An integrated detection device was introduced for rapid, on-site, and highly sensitive assay of the human antisevere acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Spike (S) protein IgG antibodies. The device mainly included a rhenium diselenide (ReSe2) nanosheet-based photothermal LFIA, a portable laser, and a smartphone with a portable thermal imager, which was used to record and analyze the thermal signal of the LFIA test zone. The human anti-SARS-COV-2 S protein IgG antibodies in buffer solution can be detected in a portable box within 10 min, with a thermal signal detection limit of 0.86 ng mL-1, which was 108-fold lower than that of the colorimetric signal. The integrated device can detect values as low as 2.76 ng mL-1 of the human anti-SARS-COV-2 S protein IgG antibodies in 50% serum. The integrated device showed great potential for rapid and home self-testing diagnosis of COVID-19.

Collective Behaviors of Active Matter Learning from Natural Taxes Across Scales

Taxis orientation is common in microorganisms, and it provides feasible strategies to operate active colloids as small-scale robots. Collective taxes involve numerous units that collectively perform taxis motion, whereby the collective cooperation between individuals enables the group to perform efficiently, adaptively, and robustly. Hence, analyzing and designing collectives is crucial for developing and advancing microswarm toward practical or clinical applications. In this review, natural taxis behaviors are categorized and synthetic microrobotic collectives are discussed as bio-inspired realizations, aiming at closing the gap between taxis strategies of living creatures and those of functional active microswarms. As collective behaviors emerge within a group, the global taxis to external stimuli guides the group to conduct overall tasks, whereas the local taxis between individuals induces synchronization and global patterns. By encoding the local orientations and programming the global stimuli, various paradigms can be introduced for coordinating and controlling such collective microrobots, from the viewpoints of fundamental science and practical applications. Therefore, by discussing the key points and difficulties associated with collective taxes of different paradigms, this review potentially offers insights into mimicking natural collective behaviors and constructing intelligent microrobotic systems for on-demand control and preassigned tasks.

Tailoring Functional Micromotors for Sensing

Micromotors are identified as a promising candidate in the field of sensing benefiting from their capacity of autonomous movement. Here, a review on the development of tailoring micromotors for sensing is presented, covering from their propulsion mechanisms and sensing strategies to applications. First, we concisely summarize the propulsion mechanism of micromotors involving fuel-based propulsion and fuel-free propulsion introducing their principles. Then, emphasis is laid to the sensing stratagems of the micromotors including speed-based sensing strategy, fluorescence-based sensing strategy, and other strategies. We listed typical examples of different sensing stratagems. After that, we introduce the applications of micromotors in sensing fields including environmental science, food safety, and biomedical fields. Finally, we discuss the challenges and prospects of the micromotors tailored for sensing. We believe that this comprehensive review can help readers to catch the research frontiers in the field of sensing and thus to burst out new ideas.

Analyte Sensing with Catalytic Micromotors

Catalytic micromotors can be used to detect molecules of interest in several ways. The straightforward approach is to use such motors as sensors of their "fuel" (i.e., of the species consumed for self-propulsion). Another way is in the detection of species which are not fuel but still modulate the catalytic processes facilitating self-propulsion. Both of these require analysis of the motion of the micromotors because the speed (or the diffusion coefficient) of the micromotors is the analytical signal. Alternatively, catalytic micromotors can be used as the means to enhance mass transport, and thus increase the probability of specific recognition events in the sample. This latter approach is based on "classic" (e.g., electrochemical) analytical signals and does not require an analysis of the motion of the micromotors. Together with a discussion of the current limitations faced by sensing concepts based on the speed (or diffusion coefficient) of catalytic micromotors, we review the findings of the studies devoted to the analytical performances of catalytic micromotor sensors. We conclude that the qualitative (rather than quantitative) analysis of small samples, in resource poor environments, is the most promising niche for the catalytic micromotors in analytical chemistry.

Recent advancements in Janus nanoparticle-based biosensing platforms

Nanoparticles have aided in the development of nano-based sensors for diagnostic applications. However, use of nanoparticles in the development of sensing devices for multiple analyte detection is constrained due to their inability to detect several analytes with a single type of nanoparticle. The term "Janus particle" refers to micro or nanoscale particles that have been divided into sections or compartments, each of which has a distinct set of chemical or physical properties, producing multifunctional particles endowed with distinctive qualities. Furthermore, Janus particles have the ability to perform multiple functions within a single particle at the same time, with no interference from adjacent sections. This review focuses on the use of Janus particles in the fabrication of biosensors as well as in the investigation of various properties endowed by these Janus particles for their use as biosensors. It also discusses the various types of Janus particle-based biosensors that are currently available. Finally, the limitations of Janus particles in sensor technologies and their future scope have been discussed.

Graphical abstract

Graphdiyne applications in sensors: A bibliometric analysis and literature review

Graphdiyne is a two-dimensional carbon nanomaterial synthesized artificially in 2010. Its outstanding performance is considered to have great potential in different fields. This article summarizes the work of graphdiyne in the sensing field by literature summary and bibliometrics analysis. The development of graphdiyne in the field of sensing has gone through a process from theoretical calculation to experimental verification. Especially in the last three years, there has been very rapid development. The theoretical calculations suggest that graphdiyne is an excellent gas sensing material, but there is little experimental evidence in this direction. On the contrary, graphdiyne has been widely reported in the field of electrochemical sensing. At the same time, graphdiyne can also be used as a molecular switch for DNA sequencing. Fluorescent sensors based on graphdiyne have also been reported. In general, the potential of graphdiyne in sensing still needs to be explored. Current research results do not show that graphdiyne has irreplaceable advantages in sensing. The bibliometric analysis used in this review also provides cooperative network analysis and co-citation analysis on this topic. This provides a reference for the audience wishing to undertake research on the topic. In addition, according to the analysis, we also listed the direction that which this field deserves attention in the future.

Micro/nanomotor technology: the new era for food safety control

Food poisoning caused by eating contaminated food remains a threat to global public health. Making the situation even worse is the aggravated global environmental pollution, which poses a major threat to the safety of agricultural resources. Food adulteration has been rampant owing to negligent national food safety regulations. The speed at which contaminated food is detected and disposed of determines the extent to which consumers' lives are safeguarded and agricultural economic losses are prevented. Micro/nanomotors offer a high-speed mobile loading platform that substantially increases the chemical reaction rates and, accordingly, exhibit great potential as alternatives to conventional detection and degradation techniques. This review summarizes the propulsion modes applicable to micro/nanomotors in food systems and the advantages of using micro/nanomotors, highlighting examples of their potential use in recent years for the detection and removal of food contaminants. Micro/nanomotors are an emerging technology for food applications that is moving toward mass production, simple preparation, and important functions.

Biocompatible micromotors for biosensing

Micro/nanomotors are nanoscale devices that have been explored in various fields, such as drug delivery, environmental remediation, or biosensing and diagnosis. The use of micro/nanomotors has grown considerably over the past few years, partially because of the advantages that they offer in the development of new conceptual avenues in biosensing. This is due to their propulsion and intermixing in solution compared with their respective static forms, which enables motion-based detection methods and/or decreases bioassay time. This review focuses on the impacts of micro/nanomotors on biosensing research in the last 2 years. An overview of designs for bioreceptor attachment to micro/nanomotors is given. Recent developments have focused on chemically propelled micromotors using external fuels, commonly hydrogen peroxide. However, the associated fuel toxicity and inconvenience of use in relevant biological samples such as blood have prompted researchers to explore new micro/nanomotor biosensing approaches based on biocompatible propulsion sources such as magnetic or ultrasound fields. The main advances in biocompatible propulsion sources for micro/nanomotors as novel biosensing platforms are discussed and grouped by their propulsion-driven forces. The relevant analytical applications are discussed and representatively illustrated. Moreover, envisioning future biosensing applications, the principal advantages of micro/nanomotor synthesis using biocompatible and biodegradable materials are given. The review concludes with a realistic drawing on the present and future perspectives.

Transition metal dichalcogenide-based Janus micromotors for on-the-fly Salmonella detection

Janus micromotors encapsulating transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) and modified with a rhodamine (RhO)-labeled affinity peptide (RhO-NFMESLPRLGMH) are used here for Salmonella enterica endotoxin detection. The OFF–ON strategy relies on the specific binding of the peptide with the TMDs to induce fluorescence quenching (OFF state); which is next recovered due to selectively binding to the endotoxin (ON state). The increase in the fluorescence of the micromotors can be quantified as a function of the concentration of endotoxin in the sample. The developed strategy was applied to the determination of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium endotoxin with high sensitivity (limits of detection (LODs) of 2.0 µg/mL using MoS₂, and 1.2 µg/mL using WS₂), with quantitative recoveries (ranging from 93.7 ± 4.6 % to 94.3 ± 6.6%) in bacteria cultures in just 5 min. No fluorescence recovery is observed in the presence of endotoxins with a similar structure, illustrating the high selectivity of the protocol, even against endotoxins of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis with great similarity in its structure, demonstrating the high bacterial specificity of the developed method. These results revealed the analytical potential of the reported strategy in multiplexed assays using different receptors or in the design of portable detection devices.

Collective behavior of magnetic microrobots through immuno-sandwich assay: On-the-fly COVID-19 sensing

Mobile self-propelled micro/nanorobots are mobile binding surface that improved the sensitivity of many biosensing system by "on-the-fly" identification and isolation of different biotargets. Proteins are powerful tools to predict infectious disease progression such as COVID-19. The main methodology used to COVID-19 detection is based on ELISA test by antibodies detection assays targeting SARS-CoV-2 virus spike protein and nucleocapside protein that represent an indirect SARS-CoV-2 detection with low sentitivy and specificity. Moreover ELISA test are limited to used external shaker to obtain homogenously immobilization of antibodies and protein on sensing platform. Here, we present magnetic microrobots that collective self-assembly through immuno-sandwich assay and they can be used as mobile platform to detect on-the-fly SARS-CoV-2 virus particle by its spike protein. The collective self-assembly of magnetic microrobots through immuno-sandwich assay enhanced its analytical performance in terms of sensitivity decreasing the detection limit of SARS-CoV-2 virus by one order of magnitude with respect to the devices previously reported. This proof-of-concept of microrobotics offer new ways to the detection of viruses and proteins of medical interest in general.

Janus particles and motors: unrivaled devices for mastering (bio)sensing

Janus particles are a unique type of materials combining two different functionalities in a single unit. This allows the combination of different analytical properties leading to new analytical capabilities, i.e., enhanced fluid mixing to increase sensitivity with targeting capturing abilities and unique advantages in terms of multi-functionality and versatility of modification, use, and operation both in static and dynamic modes. The aim of this conceptual review is to cover recent (over the last 5 years) advances in the use of Janus microparticles and micromotors in (bio)-sensing. First, the role of different materials and synthetic routes in the performance of Janus particles are described. In a second main section, electrochemical and optical biosensing based on Janus particles and motors are covered, including in vivo and in vitro methodologies as the next biosensing generation. Current challenges and future perspectives are provided in the conclusions section.

Superfast Active Droplets as Micromotors for Locomotion of Passive Droplets and Intensification of Mixing

Micromotors are fascinating objects that are able to move autonomously and perform various complex tasks related to drug delivery, chemical processes, and environmental remediation. Among the types of micromotors, droplet-based micromotors are characterized by a wide range of functional properties related to the capability of encapsulation and deformation and the possibility of using them as microreactors. Relevant problems of micromotor utilization in the chemical processes include intensification of mixing and locomotion of passive objects. In this paper, the technique for preparation of superfast active droplets, which can be used as micromotors for effective locomotion of passive droplets in the oil-in-water emulsion, is demonstrated. The possibility of passive droplet locomotion in the emulsion is determined by a relation between the diameters of active and passive droplets. If the diameter of active droplets is larger than the diameter of passive droplets, the agglomerates form spontaneously in the emulsion and move in a straight line. In the case of the opposite relation between diameters, the agglomerates consisting of active and passive droplets rotate intensively. This makes it impossible to move the passive droplets to a given distance. Such micromotors can achieve unprecedentedly high velocities of motion and can be used to intensify mixing on the microscales.