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Li X, Li Z, Guo Z, Zhang C, Xu X, Tu J, Wang X, Gu C. In Situ Polymerization of a Self-Healing Polyacrylamide-Based Eutectogel as an Electrolyte for Zinc-Ion Batteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:36901-36910. [PMID: 38978409 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c05293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
Gel electrolytes have attracted extensive attention in flexible batteries. However, the traditional hydrogel electrolyte is not enough to solve the fundamental problems of zinc anodes, such as dendrite growth, side reactions, and freezing failure at temperatures below zero, which seriously restricts the development of zinc-ion batteries. As a flexible energy storage device, the zinc-ion battery inevitably undergoes multiple stretches, bends, folds, or twists in daily use. Here, a self-healing and stretchable eutectogel, designated as deep eutectic solvent-acrylamide eutectic gel (DA-ETG), was developed as a solid-state electrolyte for zinc-ion batteries. This gel was prepared by immobilizing a high-concentration ZnCl2 deep eutectic solvent (DES) into a polyacrylamide matrix through in situ polymerization under ultraviolet light. The eutectogel electrolyte showed exceptional mechanical properties with a maximum fracture strength of 0.6 MPa and a high ionic conductivity of 6.4 × 10-4 S cm-1. The in situ polymerization of the DA-ETG electrolyte in the assembly of a full solid-state zinc-ion battery increased the electrode-electrolyte interface area contact, reduced the ion transport distance between the electrode and electrolyte, minimized the internal resistance, and enhanced the battery's long-term cycling stability. Using the DA-ETG electrolyte, a remarkably high capacity of 580 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 was achieved by the zinc-ion battery, and a considerable capacity of 234 mAh g-1 was maintained even at 5 A g-1, showing exceptional rate performance. After 2000 cycles at 2 A g-1, the cell with the eutectogel retained a capacity of 85% with a cycling efficiency close to 98%, which demonstrated excellent cycling stability. The self-healing function enabled the prepared soft battery to be reused multiple times, with full contact between the electrode and electrolyte interface, and without device failures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinru Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zhongxu Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zixian Guo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Xueer Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jiangping Tu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Xiuli Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Changdong Gu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Applications for Batteries of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310027, China
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Yan W, Li T, Zhang Y, Lin Y, Lan X, Wu J. Thermomechanically Resilient Polyionic Elastomers with Enhanced Anti-Icing Performances. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:32693-32701. [PMID: 38873805 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c04501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Anti-icing gels inhibit ice formation and accretion; however, current iterations face prevalent drawbacks such as poor strength, weak substrate adhesion, and limited anti-icing properties. Herein, we propose a novel approach to address these challenges by developing a thermomechanical robust polyionic elastomer (PIE) with enhanced anti-icing properties. The PIE surface exhibits an icing delay time up to 5400 s and remains frost-free after exposure to -10 °C for 3.5 h, attributed to the inhibitory effect on ice formation by ions from ILs and the polyelectrolyte network. Moreover, the PIE exhibits remarkable anti-icing durability, with ice adhesion strengths below 35 kPa after undergoing 30 icing/deicing cycle tests at -20 °C. Following sandpaper abrasion (300 cycles), scratching, and heat treatment (100 °C, 16 h), the adhesion strength remains ca. 20 kPa, highlighting its resilience under various thermal and mechanical conditions. This exceptional durability is attributed to the low volatility of the IL and the robust ionic interactions within the PIE network. Furthermore, the PIE demonstrates favorable self-healing properties and strong substrate adhesion in both low-temperature and ambient environments, facilitated by the abundance of hydrogen bonds and electrostatic forces within PIE. This work presents an innovative approach to developing high-performance, durable, and robust anti-icing materials with potential implications across various fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Yan
- School of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Advanced Materials and Applied Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Tong Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Advanced Materials and Applied Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
- Department of Coatings and Polymeric Materials, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58102, United States
| | - Yi Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Advanced Materials and Applied Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Yanwen Lin
- Department of Physics, Research Institute and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Xijian Lan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Advanced Materials and Applied Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Jianyang Wu
- Department of Physics, Research Institute and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
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Yan K, He B, Wu S, Zeng Y, Wang P, Liu S, Ye Q, Zhou F, Liu W. Fabrication of Poly(ionic liquid) Hydrogels Incorporating Liquid Metal Microgels for Enhanced Synergistic Antifouling Applications. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:30453-30461. [PMID: 38832492 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c06361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Hydrogels are ideal for antifouling materials due to their high hydrophilicity and low adhesion properties. Herein, poly(ionic liquid) hydrogels integrated with zwitterionic copolymer-functionalized gallium-based liquid metal (PMPC-GLM) microgels were successfully prepared by a one-pot reaction. Poly(ionic liquid) hydrogels (IL-Gel) were obtained by chemical cross-linking the copolymer of ionic liquid, acrylic acid, and acrylamide, and the introduction of ionic liquid (IL) significantly increased the cross-linking density; this approach consequently enhanced the mechanical and antiswelling properties of the hydrogels. The swelling ratio of IL-Gel decreased eight times compared to the original hydrogels. PMPC-GLM microgels were prepared through grafting the zwitterionic polymer PMPC onto the GLM nanodroplet surface, which exhibited efficient antifouling performance attributed to the bactericidal effect of Ga3+ and the antibacterial effect of the zwitterionic polymer layer PMPC. Based on the synergistic effect of PMPC-GLM microgels and IL, the composite hydrogels PMPC-GLM@IL-Gel not only exhibited excellent mechanical and antiswelling properties but also showed outstanding antibacterial and antifouling properties. Consequently, PMPC-GLM@IL-Gel hydrogels achieved inhibition rates of over 90% against bacteria and more than 85% against microalgae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaige Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
| | - Baoluo He
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
| | - Shihan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
| | - Yixin Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
| | - Peng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
| | - Shujuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
| | - Qian Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
| | - Feng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Weimin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
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Gao F, Yang X, Song W. Bioinspired Supramolecular Hydrogel from Design to Applications. SMALL METHODS 2024; 8:e2300753. [PMID: 37599261 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Nature offers a wealth of opportunities to solve scientific and technological issues based on its unique structures and function. The dynamic non-covalent interaction is considered to be the main base of living functions of creatures including humans, animals, and plants. Supramolecular hydrogels formed by non-covalent bonding interactions has become a unique platform for constructing promising materials for medicine, energy, electronic, and biological substitute. In this review, the self-assemble principle of supramolecular hydrogels is summarized. Next, the stimulation of external environment that triggers the assembly or disassembly of supramolecular hydrogels are recapitulated, including temperature, mechanics, light, pH, ions, etc. The main applications of bioinspired supramolecular hydrogels in terms of bionic objects including humans, animals, and plants are also described. Although so many efforts are done for revealing the synergized mechanism of the function and non-covalent interactions on the supramolecular hydrogel, the complexity and variability between stimulus and non-covalent bonding in the supramolecular system still require impeccable theories. As an outlook, the bioinspired supramolecular hydrogel is just beginning to exhibit its great potential in human life, offering significant opportunities in drug delivery and screening, implantable devices and substitutions, tissue engineering, micro-fluidic devices, and biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
| | - Xuhao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
| | - Wenlong Song
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
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Jiang S, Diao Y, Yang H. Recent advances of bio-inspired anti-icing surfaces. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 308:102756. [PMID: 36007284 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2022.102756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The need for improved anti-icing surfaces is the demand of the time and closely related to many important aspects of our lives as surface icing threatens not only industrial production but also human safety. Freezing on a cold surface is usually a heterogeneous nucleation process induced by the substrate. Creating an anti-icing surface is mainly achieved by changing surface morphology and chemistry to regulate the interaction between the surface and the water/ice to inhibit freezing on the surface. In this paper, recent research progress in the creation of biomimetic anti-icing surfaces is reviewed. Firstly, basic strategies of bionic anti-icing are introduced, and then bionic anti-icing surface strategies are reviewed according to four aspects: the process of ice formation, including condensate self-removing, inhibiting ice nucleation, reducing ice adhesion, and melting accumulated ice on the surface. The remaining challenges and the direction of future development of biomimetic anti-icing surfaces are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Jiang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, 450001 Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Yunhe Diao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, 450001 Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Huige Yang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, 450001 Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
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Yang J, Kang Q, Zhang B, Tian X, Liu S, Qin G, Chen Q. Robust, fatigue resistant, self-healing and antifreeze ionic conductive supramolecular hydrogels for wearable flexible sensors. J IND ENG CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2022.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Feng X, Zhang X, Tian G. Recent advances in bioinspired superhydrophobic ice-proof surfaces: challenges and prospects. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:5960-5993. [PMID: 35411360 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr00964a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Bionic superhydrophobic ice-proof surfaces inspired by natural biology show great potential in daily life. They have attracted wide research interest due to their promising and wide applications in offshore equipment, transportation, power transmission, communication, energy, etc. The flourishing development of superhydrophobic ice-proof surfaces has been witnessed due to the availability of various fabrication methods. These surfaces can effectively inhibit the accumulation of ice, thereby ensuring the safety of human life and property. This review highlights the latest advances in bio-inspired superhydrophobic ice-proof materials. Firstly, several familiar cold-resistant creatures with well-organized texture structures are listed briefly, which provide an excellent template for the design of bioinspired ice-proof surfaces. Next, the advantages and disadvantages of the current techniques for the preparation of superhydrophobic ice-proof surfaces are also analyzed in depth. Subsequently, the theoretical knowledge on icing formation and three passive ice-proof strategies are introduced in detail. Afterward, the recent progress in improving the durability of ice-proof surfaces is emphasized. Finally, the remaining challenges and promising breakthroughs in this field are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Feng
- Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, P. R. China.
| | - Xiaowei Zhang
- Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, P. R. China.
| | - Guizhong Tian
- Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, P. R. China.
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Zhuo Y, Chen J, Xiao S, Li T, Wang F, He J, Zhang Z. Gels as emerging anti-icing materials: a mini review. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2021; 8:3266-3280. [PMID: 34842262 DOI: 10.1039/d1mh00910a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Gel materials have drawn great attention recently in the anti-icing research community due to their remarkable potential for reducing ice adhesion, inhibiting ice nucleation, and restricting ice propagation. Although the current anti-icing gels are in their infancy and far from practical applications due to poor durability, their outstanding prospect of icephobicity has already shed light on a new group of emerging anti-icing materials. There is a need for a timely review to consolidate the new trends and foster the development towards dedicated applications. Starting from the stage of icing, we first survey the relevant anti-icing strategies. The latest anti-icing gels are then categorized by their liquid phases into organogels, hydrogels, and ionogels. At the same time, the current research focuses, anti-icing mechanisms and shortcomings affiliated with each category are carefully analysed. Based upon the reported state-of-the-art anti-icing research and our own experience in polymer-based anti-icing materials, suggestions for the future development of the anti-icing gels are presented, including pathways to enhance durability, the need to build up the missing fundamentals, and the possibility to enable stimuli-responsive properties. The primary aim of this review is to motivate researchers in both the anti-icing and gel research communities to perform a synchronized effort to rapidly advance the understanding and making of gel-based next generation anti-icing materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yizhi Zhuo
- NTNU Nanomechanical Lab, Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway.
| | - Jianhua Chen
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Environment, Minnan Normal University, Zhangzhou 363000, China
| | - Senbo Xiao
- NTNU Nanomechanical Lab, Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway.
| | - Tong Li
- NTNU Nanomechanical Lab, Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway.
| | - Feng Wang
- NTNU Nanomechanical Lab, Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway.
| | - Jianying He
- NTNU Nanomechanical Lab, Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway.
| | - Zhiliang Zhang
- NTNU Nanomechanical Lab, Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway.
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Weng PE, Gooyandeh A, Tariq M, Li T, Godara A, Valenzuela J, Mancini S, Yeung SMT, Sosa R, Wagner DR, Dhall R, Adelstein N, Kao K, Oh D. Microbe-Assisted Nanocomposite Anodes for Aqueous Li-Ion Batteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:39195-39204. [PMID: 34387480 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c07309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
With the rapid increase in the use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), the development of safe LIBs has become an important social issue. Replacing flammable organic liquid electrolytes in current LIBs with water can be an alternative route to resolve this safety concern. The water-in-salt (WIS) electrolytes received great attention as next-generation electrolytes due to their large electrochemical stability window. However, their high cathodic limit remains as a challenge, impeding the use of low-potential anodes. Here, we report the first biodirected synthesis of carbonaceous layers on anodes to use them as interlayers that prevent a direct contact of water molecules to anode particles. High-aspect ratio microbes are utilized as precursors of carbonaceous layers on TiO2 nanoparticles (m-TiO2) to enhance the conductivity and to reduce the electrolysis of WIS electrolytes. We selected the cylindrical shape of microbes that offers geometric diversity, providing us a toolkit to investigate the effect of microbe length in forming the network in binary composites and their impacts on the battery performance with WIS electrolytes. Using microbes with varying aspect ratios, the optimal microbe size to maximize the battery performance is determined. The effects of storage time on microbe size are also studied. Compared to uncoated TiO2 anodes, m-TiO2 exhibited 49% higher capacity at the 40th cycle and enhanced the cycle life close to anodes made with a conventional carbon precursor while using an 11% less amount of carbon. We performed density functional theory calculations to unravel the underlying mechanism of the performance improvement using microbe-derived carbon layers. Computational results show that high amounts of pyridinic nitrogen present in the peptide bonds in microbes are expected to slow down the water diffusion. Our findings provide key insights into the design of an interlayer for WIS anodes and open an avenue to fabricate energy storage materials using biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-En Weng
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Alexander Gooyandeh
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Muhammad Tariq
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Tianyu Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, Jack E. Brown Engineering Building, 3122 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Avinash Godara
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, Jack E. Brown Engineering Building, 3122 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Jocelyn Valenzuela
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Steven Mancini
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Samuel Ming Tuk Yeung
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Ruth Sosa
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - David R Wagner
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Rohan Dhall
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley 94720, California, United States
| | - Nicole Adelstein
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, California 94312, United States
| | - Katy Kao
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
| | - Dahyun Oh
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, San José State University, One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0080, United States
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