Ternary-Responsive Drug Delivery with Activatable Dual Mode Contrast-Enhanced in Vivo Imaging

Manganese-based nanomaterials promote synergistic photo-immunotherapy: green synthesis, underlying mechanisms, and multiple applications

Single phototherapy and immunotherapy have individually made great achievements in tumor treatment. However, monotherapy has difficulty in balancing accuracy and efficiency. Combining phototherapy with immunotherapy can realize the growth inhibition of distal metastatic tumors and enable the remote monitoring of tumor treatment. The development of nanomaterials with photo-responsiveness and anti-tumor immunity activation ability is crucial for achieving photo-immunotherapy. As immune adjuvants, photosensitizers and photothermal agents, manganese-based nanoparticles (Mn-based NPs) have become a research hotspot owing to their multiple ways of anti-tumor immunity regulation, photothermal conversion and multimodal imaging. However, systematic studies on the synergistic photo-immunotherapy applications of Mn-based NPs are still limited; especially, the green synthesis and mechanism of Mn-based NPs applied in immunotherapy are rarely comprehensively discussed. In this review, the synthesis strategies and function of Mn-based NPs in immunotherapy are first introduced. Next, the different mechanisms and leading applications of Mn-based NPs in immunotherapy are reviewed. In addition, the advantages of Mn-based NPs in synergistic photo-immunotherapy are highlighted. Finally, the challenges and research focus of Mn-based NPs in combination therapy are discussed, which might provide guidance for future personalized cancer therapy.

Development of Polymer-Encapsulated, Amine-Functionalized Zinc Ferrite Nanoparticles as MRI Contrast Agents

The need for stable and well-defined magnetic nanoparticles is constantly increasing in biomedical applications; however, their preparation remains challenging. We used two different solvothermal methods (12 h reflux and a 4 min microwave, MW) to synthesize amine-functionalized zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4-NH2) superparamagnetic nanoparticles. The morphological features of the two ferrite samples were the same, but the average particle size was slightly larger in the case of MW activation: 47 ± 14 nm (Refl.) vs. 63 ± 20 nm (MW). Phase identification measurements confirmed the exclusive presence of zinc ferrite with virtually the same magnetic properties. The Refl. samples had a zeta potential of -23.8 ± 4.4 mV, in contrast to the +7.6 ± 6.8 mV measured for the MW sample. To overcome stability problems in the colloidal phase, the ferrite nanoparticles were embedded in polyvinylpyrrolidone and could be easily redispersed in water. Two PVP-coated zinc ferrite samples were administered (1 mg/mL ZnFe2O4) in X BalbC mice and were compared as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). After determining the r1/r2 ratio, the samples were compared to other commercially available contrast agents. Consistent with other SPION nanoparticles, our sample exhibits a concentrated presence in the hepatic region of the animals, with comparable biodistribution and pharmacokinetics suspected. Moreover, a small dose of 1.3 mg/body weight kg was found to be sufficient for effective imaging. It should also be noted that no toxic side effects were observed, making ZnFe2O4-NH2 advantageous for pharmaceutical formulations.

Designing Smart Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for MR Imaging of Tumors

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) possess unique magnetism and good biocompatibility, and they have been widely applied as contrast agents (CAs) for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Traditional CAs typically show a fixed enhanced signal, thus exhibiting the limitations of low sensitivity and a lack of specificity. Nowadays, the progress of stimulus-responsive IONPs allows alteration of the relaxation signal in response to internal stimuli of the tumor, or external stimuli, thus providing an opportunity to overcome those limitations. This review summarizes the current status of smart IONPs as tumor imaging MRI CAs that exhibit responsiveness to endogenous stimuli, such as pH, hypoxia, glutathione, and enzymes, or exogenous stimuli, such as magnets, light, and so on. We discuss the challenges and future opportunities for IONPs as MRI CAs and comprehensively illustrate the applications of these stimuli-responsive IONPs. This review will help provide guidance for designing IONPs as MRI CAs and further promote the reasonable design of magnetic nanoparticles and achieve early and accurate tumor detection.

Role of Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) Nanocomposites in Advanced Biomedical Applications: A State-of-the-Art Review

Nanomaterials have demonstrated a wide range of applications and recently, novel biomedical studies are devoted to improving the functionality and effectivity of traditional and unmodified systems, either drug carriers and common scaffolds for tissue engineering or advanced hydrogels for wound healing purposes. In this regard, metal oxide nanoparticles show great potential as versatile tools in biomedical science. In particular, iron oxide nanoparticles with different shape and sizes hold outstanding physiochemical characteristics, such as high specific area and porous structure that make them idoneous nanomaterials to be used in diverse aspects of medicine and biological systems. Moreover, due to the high thermal stability and mechanical strength of Fe₂O₃, they have been combined with several polymers and employed for various nano-treatments for specific human diseases. This review is focused on summarizing the applications of Fe₂O₃-based nanocomposites in the biomedical field, including nanocarriers for drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing. Additionally, their structure, magnetic properties, biocompatibility, and toxicity will be discussed.

Radiopaque Crystalline, Non-Crystalline and Nanostructured Bioceramics

Radiopacity is sometimes an essential characteristic of biomaterials that can help clinicians perform follow-ups during pre- and post-interventional radiological imaging. Due to their chemical composition and structure, most bioceramics are inherently radiopaque but can still be doped/mixed with radiopacifiers to increase their visualization during or after medical procedures. The radiopacifiers are frequently heavy elements of the periodic table, such as Bi, Zr, Sr, Ba, Ta, Zn, Y, etc., or their relevant compounds that can confer enhanced radiopacity. Radiopaque bioceramics are also intriguing additives for biopolymers and hybrids, which are extensively researched and developed nowadays for various biomedical setups. The present work aims to provide an overview of radiopaque bioceramics, specifically crystalline, non-crystalline (glassy), and nanostructured bioceramics designed for applications in orthopedics, dentistry, and cancer therapy. Furthermore, the modification of the chemical, physical, and biological properties of parent ceramics/biopolymers due to the addition of radiopacifiers is critically discussed. We also point out future research lacunas in this exciting field that bioceramists can explore further.

Emerging nanobiotechnology-encoded relaxation tuning establishes new MRI modes to localize, monitor and predict diseases

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the most important techniques in the diagnosis of many diseases including cancers, where contrast agents (CAs) are usually necessary to improve its precision and sensitivity. Previous MRI CAs are confined to the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) elevation of lesions for precisely localizing lesions. As nanobiotechnology advances, some new MRI CAs or nanobiotechnology-enabled MRI modes have been established to vary the longitudinal or transverse relaxation of CAs, which are harnessed to detect lesion targets, monitor disease evolution, predict or evaluate curative effect, etc. These distinct cases provide unexpected insights into the correlation of the design principles of these nanobiotechnologies and corresponding MRI CAs with their potential applications. In this review, first, we briefly present the principles, classifications and applications of conventional MRI CAs, and then elucidate the recent advances in relaxation tuning via the development of various nanobiotechnologies with emphasis on the design strategies of nanobiotechnology and the corresponding MRI CAs to target the tumor microenvironment (TME) and biological targets or activities in tumors or other diseases. In addition, we exemplified the advantages of these strategies in disease theranostics and explored their potential application fields. Finally, we analyzed the present limitations, potential solutions and future development direction of MRI after its combination with nanobiotechnology.

Theranostic applications of stimulus-responsive systems based on Fe2O3

According to the interaction of nanoparticles with biological systems, enthusiasm for nanotechnology in biomedical applications has been developed in the past decades. Fe2O3 nanoparticles, as the most stable iron oxide, have special merits that make them useful widely for detecting diseases, therapy, drug delivery, and monitoring the therapeutic process. This review presents the fabrication methods of Fe2O3-based materials and their photocatalytic and magnetic properties. Then, we highlight the application of Fe2O3-based nanoparticles in diagnosis and imaging, different therapy methods, and finally, stimulus-responsive systems, such as pH-responsive, magnetic-responsive, redox-responsive, and enzyme-responsive, with an emphasis on cancer treatment. In addition, the potential of Fe2O3 to combine diagnosis and therapy within a single particle called theranostic agent will be discussed.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer: A Systematic Literature Overview

Pancreatic cancer is a devastating disease with the worst outcome of any human cancer. Despite significant improvements in cancer treatment in general, little progress has been made in pancreatic cancer (PDAC), resulting in an overall 5-year survival rate of less than 10%. This dismal prognosis can be attributed to the limited clinical efficacy of systemic chemotherapy due to its high toxicity and consequent dose reductions. Targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs to PDAC cells without affecting healthy non-tumor cells will largely reduce collateral toxicity leading to reduced morbidity and an increased number of PDAC patients eligible for chemotherapy treatment. To achieve targeted delivery in PDAC, several strategies have been explored over the last years, and especially the use of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) seem an attractive approach. MSNs show high biocompatibility, are relatively easy to surface modify, and the porous structure of MSNs enables high drug-loading capacity. In the current systematic review, we explore the suitability of MSN-based targeted therapies in the setting of PDAC. We provide an extensive overview of MSN-formulations employed in preclinical PDAC models and conclude that MSN-based tumor-targeting strategies may indeed hold therapeutic potential for PDAC, although true clinical translation has lagged behind.

Intrinsically radiopaque biomaterial assortments: a short review on the physical principles, X-ray imageability, and state-of-the-art developments

X-ray attenuation ability, otherwise known as radiopacity of a material, could be indisputably tagged as the central and decisive parameter that produces contrast in an X-ray image. Radiopaque biomaterials are vital in the healthcare sector that helps clinicians to track them unambiguously during pre and post interventional radiological procedures. Medical imaging is one of the most powerful resources in the diagnostic sector that aids improved treatment outcomes for patients. Intrinsically radiopaque biomaterials enable themselves for visual targeting/positioning as well as to monitor their fate and further provide the radiologists with critical insights about the surgical site. Moreover, the emergence of advanced real-time imaging modalities is a boon to the contemporary healthcare systems that allow to perform minimally invasive surgical procedures and thereby reduce the healthcare costs and minimize patient trauma. X-ray based imaging is one such technologically upgraded diagnostic tool with many variants like digital X-ray, computed tomography, digital subtraction angiography, and fluoroscopy. In light of these facts, this review is aimed to briefly consolidate the physical principles of X-ray attenuation by a radiopaque material, measurement of radiopacity, classification of radiopaque biomaterials, and their recent advanced applications.

Microemulsion-Confined Biomineralization of PEGylated Ultrasmall Fe3O4 Nanocrystals for T2-T1 Switchable MRI of Tumors

Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (USPIONs) are a novel T1 contrast agent with good biocompatibility and switchable imaging signal that have not been widely applied for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) because it is difficult to induce their relatively close ideal agglomeration. Here, by combining the microemulsion method with the biomineralization principle, a pH-responsive T2-T1 switchable MRI nanoprobe was constructed via the microemulsion-confined biomineralization of PEGylated USPIONs (PEG-USPIONs). The size of the formed CaCO₃-coated PEG-USPION conjugates (PEG-USPIONs@CaCO₃ nanoprobe) was uniform and controllable, and the preparation method was simple. The PEG-USPIONs inside the nanoconjugates agglomerate more tightly, and the T1-MRI signal of the nanoprobe is converted to the T2-MRI signal. When exposed to the acidic environment of the tumor tissue or internal organelles, the CaCO₃-coating of the nanoprobes is dissolved, and free PEG-USPIONs are released, thus realizing the T1-weighted imaging of the tumors. The suitability of the PEG-USPIONs@CaCO₃ nanoprobe for tumor MRI detection was successfully demonstrated using a mouse model bearing a subcutaneous 4T1 xenograft.

Multifunctional theranostic nanoparticles for biomedical cancer treatments - A comprehensive review

Modern-day search for the novel agents (their preparation and consequent implementation) to effectively treat the cancer is mainly fuelled by the historical failure of the conventional treatment modalities. Apart from that, the complexities such as higher rate of cell mutations, variable tumor microenvironment, patient-specific disparities, and the evolving nature of cancers have made this search much stronger in the latest times. As a result of this, in about two decades, the theranostic nanoparticles (TNPs) - i.e., nanoparticles that integrate therapeutic and diagnostic characteristics - have been developed. The examples for TNPs include mesoporous silica nanoparticles, luminescence nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles. These TNPs have emerged as single and powerful cancer-treating multifunctional nanoplatforms, as they widely provide the necessary functionalities to overcome the previous/conventional limitations including lack of the site-specific delivery of anti-cancer drugs, and real-time continuous monitoring of the target cancer sites while performing therapeutic actions. This has been mainly possible due to the association of the as-developed TNPs with the already-available unique diagnostic (e.g., luminescence, photoacoustic, and magnetic resonance imaging) and therapeutic (e.g., photothermal, photodynamic, hyperthermia therapy) modalities in the biomedical field. In this review, we have discussed in detail about the recent developments on the aforementioned important TNPs without/with targeting ability (i.e., attaching them with ligands or tumor-specific antibodies) and also the strategies that are implemented to increase their tumor accumulation and to enhance their theranostic efficacies for effective biomedical cancer treatments.

Nanotheranostics for Cancer Therapy and Detection: State of the Art

Nanotheranostics, an approach of combining both diagnosis and therapy, is one of the latest advances in cancer therapy particularly. Nanocarriers designed and derived from inorganic materials such as like gold nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes have been explored for tremendous applications in this area. Similarly, nanoparticles composed of some organic material alone or in combination with inorganic nano-cargos have been developed pre-clinically and possess excellent features desired. Photothermal therapy, MRI, simultaneous imaging and delivery, and combination chemotherapy with a diagnosis are a few of the known methods exploring cancer therapy and detection at organ/tissue/molecular/sub-cellular level. This review comprises an overview of the recent reports meant for nano theranostics purposes. Targeted cancer nanotheranostics have been included for understating tumor micro-environment or cell-specific targeting approach employed. A brief account of various strategies is also included for the readers highlighting the mechanism of cancer therapy.

Magnetic Nanoparticles as MRI Contrast Agents

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional contrast agents (CAs) for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). They have been extensively investigated as CAs due to their high biocompatibility and excellent magnetic properties. Furthermore, the ease of functionalization of their surfaces with different types of ligands (antibodies, peptides, sugars, etc.) opens up the possibility of carrying out molecular MRI. Thus, IONPs functionalized with epithelial growth factor receptor antibodies, short peptides, like RGD, or aptamers, among others, have been proposed for the diagnosis of various types of cancer, including breast, stomach, colon, kidney, liver or brain cancer. In addition to cancer diagnosis, different types of IONPs have been developed for other applications, such as the detection of brain inflammation or the early diagnosis of thrombosis. This review addresses key aspects in the development of IONPs for MRI applications, namely, synthesis of the inorganic core, functionalization processes to make IONPs biocompatible and also to target them to specific tissues or cells, and finally in vivo studies in animal models, with special emphasis on tumor models.

Tantalum oxide nanoparticles as versatile contrast agents for X-ray computed tomography

Here, we describe the synthesis, characterization and in vitro and in vivo performance of a series of tantalum oxide (TaOx) based nanoparticles (NPs) for computed tomography (CT). Five distinct versions of 9-12 nm diameter silane coated TaOx nanocrystals (NCs) were fabricated by a sol-gel method with varying degrees of hydrophilicity and with or without fluorescence, with the highest reported Ta content to date (78%). Highly hydrophilic NCs were left bare and were evaluated in vivo in mice for micro-CT of full body vasculature, where following intravenous injection, TaOx NCs demonstrate high vascular CT contrast, circulation in blood for ∼3 h, and eventual accumulation in RES organs; and following injection locally in the mammary gland, where the full ductal tree structure can be clearly delineated. Partially hydrophilic NCs were encapsulated within mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs; TaOx@MSNPs) and hydrophobic NCs were encapsulated within poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA; TaOx@PLGA) NPs, serving as potential CT-imagable drug delivery vehicles. Bolus intramuscular injections of TaOx@PLGA NPs and TaOx@MSNPs to mimic the accumulation of NPs at a tumor site produce high signal enhancement in mice. In vitro studies on bare NCs and formulated NPs demonstrate high cytocompatibility and low dissolution of TaOx. This work solidifies that TaOx-based NPs are versatile contrast agents for CT.

Manganese Oxide Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Theranostic Applications

Despite the comprehensive applications in bioimaging, biosensing, drug/gene delivery, and tumor therapy of manganese oxide nanomaterials (MONs including MnO₂ , MnO, Mn₂ O₃ , Mn₃ O₄ , and MnO_x ) and their derivatives, a review article focusing on MON-based nanoplatforms has not been reported yet. Herein, the representative progresses of MONs on synthesis, heterogene, properties, surface modification, toxicity, imaging, biodetection, and therapy are mainly introduced. First, five kinds of primary synthetic methods of MONs are presented, including thermal decomposition method, exfoliation strategy, permanganates reduction method, adsorption-oxidation method, and hydro/solvothermal. Second, the preparations of hollow MONs and MON-based composite materials are summarized specially. Then, the chemical properties, surface modification, and toxicity of MONs are discussed. Next, the diagnostic applications including imaging and sensing are outlined. Finally, some representative rational designs of MONs in photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, chemodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, radiotherapy, magnetic hyperthermia, chemotherapy, gene therapy, starvation therapy, ferroptosis, immunotherapy, and various combination therapy are highlighted.

New Advances in In Vivo Applications of Gated Mesoporous Silica as Drug Delivery Nanocarriers

One appealing concept in the field of hybrid materials is related to the design of gated materials. These materials are prepared in such a way that the release of chemical or biochemical species from voids of porous supports to a solution is triggered upon the application of external stimuli. Such gated materials are mainly composed of two subunits: i) a porous inorganic scaffold in which a cargo is stored, and ii) certain molecular or supramolecular entities, grafted onto the external surface, that can control mass transport from the interior of the pores. On the basis of this concept, a large number of examples are developed in the past ten years. A comprehensive overview of gated materials used in drug delivery applications in in vivo models from 2016 to date is thus given here.

Nanoenzymes in disease diagnosis and therapy

This feature article highlights various nanoenzymes and their bio-applications in disease diagnosis and therapy. Current challenges and future trends of nanoenzymes are also discussed.

Manganese Oxide Nanoparticles As MRI Contrast Agents In Tumor Multimodal Imaging And Therapy

Contrast agents (CAs) play a crucial role in high-quality magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) applications. At present, as a result of the Gd-based CAs which are associated with renal fibrosis as well as the inherent dark imaging characteristics of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, Mn-based CAs which have a good biocompatibility and bright images are considered ideal for MRI. In addition, manganese oxide nanoparticles (MONs, such as MnO, MnO2, Mn3O4, and MnOx) have attracted attention as T1-weighted magnetic resonance CAs due to the short circulation time of Mn(II) ion chelate and the size-controlled circulation time of colloidal nanoparticles. In this review, recent advances in the use of MONs as MRI contrast agents for tumor detection and diagnosis are reported, as are the advances in in vivo toxicity, distribution and tumor microenvironment-responsive enhanced tumor chemotherapy and radiotherapy as well as photothermal and photodynamic therapies.

Self-generating oxygen enhanced mitochondrion-targeted photodynamic therapy for tumor treatment with hypoxia scavenging

Tumor hypoxia is an important reason for the limited therapeutic efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) because of the oxygen requirement of the therapeutic process. PDT consumes tissue oxygen and destroys tumor vasculature, further hampering its own efficacy in promoting tumor deterioration. Therefore, overcoming the photodynamic exacerbation of tumor hypoxia is urgent. Methods: Herein, we report a photodynamic nanoparticle with sustainable hypoxia remission skills by both intratumoral H2O2 catalysis and targeted mitochondrial destruction. The Mn3O4@MSNs@IR780 nanoparticles are formed by absorbing a photosensitizer (IR780) into 90 nm mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and capping the surface pores with 5 nm Mn3O4 nanoparticles. Results: These Mn3O4 nanoparticles can accumulate in tumors and respond to the H2O2-enriched tumor microenvironment by decomposing and catalyzing H2O2 into O2. Afterwards, IR780 is released and activated, spontaneously targeting the mitochondria due to its natural mitochondrial affinity. Under laser irradiation, this self-generated oxygen-enhanced PDT can destroy mitochondria and inhibit cell respiration, resulting in sustainable hypoxia remission in tumor tissues and consequently enhancing the therapeutic outcome. In vitro experiments suggest that Mn3O4@MSNs@IR780 exhibited highly mitochondrion-targeted properties and could sustainably inhibit tumor hypoxia. Additionally, the highest photoacoustic signal of HbO2 with the lowest Hb was observed in tumors from mice after PDT, indicating that these nanoparticles can also prevent tumor hypoxia in vivo. Conclusion: Taken together, our study indicated a new approach for overcoming the sustainable hypoxia limitation in traditional PDT by targeted oxygen supplementation and mitochondria destruction.

A multifunctional lipid that forms contrast-agent liposomes with dual-control release capabilities for precise MRI-guided drug delivery

Monitoring of nanoparticle-based therapy in vivo and controlled drug release are urgently needed for the precise treatment of disease. We have synthesized a multifunctional Gd-DTPA-ONB (GDO) lipid by introducing the Gd-DTPA contrast agent moiety into an o-nitro-benzyl ester lipid. By design, liposomes formed from the GDO lipid combine MRI tracking ability and dual-trigger release capabilities with maximum sensitivity (because all lipids bear the cleavable moiety) without reducing the drug encapsulation rate. We first confirmed that both photo-treatment and pH-triggered hydrolysis are able to cleave the GDO lipid and lyse GDO liposomes. We then investigated the efficiency of drug release via the combined release processes for GDO liposomes loaded with doxorubicin (DOX). Relative to neutral pH, the release efficiency in acidic environment increased by 10.4% (at pH = 6.5) and 13.3% (at pH = 4.2). This pH-dependent release response is conducive to distinguishing pathological tissue such as tumors and endolysosomal compartments. The photo-induced release efficiency increases with illumination time as well as with distance of the pH from neutral. Photolysis increased the release efficiency by 13.8% at pH = 4.2, which is remarkable considering the already increased amount of drug release in the acidic environment. In addition, the relaxation time of GDO liposomes was 4.1 times that of clinical Gd-DTPA, with brighter T₁-weighted imaging in vitro and in vivo. Real-time MRI imaging and in vivo fluorescence experiments demonstrated tumor targeting and MRI guided release. Furthermore, significant tumor growth inhibition in a treatment experiment using DOX-loaded GDO liposomes clearly demonstrated the benefit of photo-treatment for efficacy: the tumor size in the photo-treatment group was 3.7 times smaller than in the control group. The present study thus highlights the benefit of the design idea of combining efficient imaging/guiding, targeting, and triggerable release functions in one lipid molecule for drug delivery applications.

Combinational phototherapy and hypoxia-activated chemotherapy favoring antitumor immune responses

Background: Tumor metastasis is responsible for most cancer death worldwide, which lacks curative treatment.

Purpose: The objective of this study was to eliminate tumor and control the development of tumor metastasis.

Methods: Herein, we demonstrated a smart nano-enabled platform, in which 2-[2-[2-chloro-3-[(1,3-dihydro-3,3-dimethyl-1-propyl-2h-indol-2-ylidene)ethylidene]-1-cyclohexen-1-yl]ethenyl]-3,3-dimethyl-1-propylindolium iodide (IR780) and tirapazamine (TPZ) were co-loaded in poly(ε-caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG-PCL) to form versatile nanoparticles (PEG-PCL-IR780-TPZ NPs).

Results: The intelligence of the system was reflected in the triggered and controlled engineering. Specially, PEG-PCL not only prolonged the circulation time of IR780 and TPZ but also promoted tumor accumulation of nanodrugs through enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Moreover, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by IR780 armed by an 808 nm laser irradiation evoked a cargo release. Meanwhile, IR780, as a mitochondria-targeting phototherapy agent exacerbated tumor hypoxic microenvironment and activated TPZ for accomplishing hypoxia-activated chemotherapy. Most significantly, IR780 was capable of triggering immunogenic cell death (ICD) during the synergic treatment. ICD biomarkers as a “danger signal” accelerated dendritic cells (DCs) maturation, and subsequently activated toxic T lymphocytes.

Conclusion: Eventually, antitumor immune responses stimulated by combinational phototherapy and hypoxia-activated chemotherapy revolutionized the current landscape of cancer treatment, strikingly inhibiting tumor metastasis and providing a promising prospect in the clinical application.

Functional Mesoporous Silica Nanocomposites: Biomedical applications and Biosafety

The rise and development of nanotechnology has enabled the creation of a wide number of systems with new and advantageous features to treat cancer. However, in many cases, the lone application of these new nanotherapeutics has proven not to be enough to achieve acceptable therapeutic efficacies. Hence, to avoid these limitations, the scientific community has embarked on the development of single formulations capable of combining functionalities. Among all possible components, silica-either solid or mesoporous-has become of importance as connecting and coating material for these new-generation therapeutic nanodevices. In the present review, the most recent examples of fully inorganic silica-based functional composites are visited, paying particular attention to those with potential biomedical applicability. Additionally, some highlights will be given with respect to their possible biosafety issues based on their chemical composition.

Intracellular GSH-responsive camptothecin delivery systems

Smart GSH-responsive camptothecin delivery systems for treatment of tumors and real-time monitoring in vivo and in vitro were described.