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Yee H, Lee JI, Park DM, Jung K, Lee S, Kim NH, Kim J, Kim HJ, Kang MS. Extending the Operational Lifetime of Electrochemiluminescence Devices by Installing a Floating Bipolar Electrode. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2307190. [PMID: 38009522 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202307190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) holds significant promise for the development of cost-effective light-emitting devices because of its simple structure. However, conventional ECL devices (ECLDs) have a major limitation of short operational lifetimes, rendering them impractical for real-world applications. Typically, the luminescence of these devices lasts no longer than a few minutes during operation. In the current study, a novel architecture is provided for ECLDs that addresses this luminescence lifespan issue. The device architecture features an ECL active layer between two coplanar driving electrodes and a third floating bipolar electrode. The inclusion of the floating bipolar electrode enables modulating the electrical-field distribution within the active layer when a bias is applied between the driving electrodes. This, in turn, enables the use of opaque yet electrochemically stable noble metals as the driving electrodes while allowing ECL light to escape through the transparent floating bipolar electrode. A significant extension on operational lifetime is achieved, defined as the time required for the initial luminance (>100 cd m-2) to decrease by 50%, surpassing 1 h. This starkly contrasts the short lifetime (<1 min) attained by ECLDs in a conventional sandwich-type architecture with two transparent electrodes. These results provide simple strategies for developing durable ECL-based light-emitting devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeono Yee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Ik Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Mok Park
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Keonhee Jung
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghan Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Nam Hun Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungwook Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeong Jun Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Sung Kang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Emergent Materials, Ricci Institute of Basic Science, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
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Moon CK, Butscher JF, Gather MC. An Exciplex-Based Light-Emission Pathway for Solution-State Electrochemiluminescent Devices. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2302544. [PMID: 37308129 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202302544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) allows the design of unique light-emitting devices that use organic semiconductors in a liquid or gel state, which allows for simpler and more sustainable device fabrication and facilitates unconventional device form-factors. Compared to solid-state organic LEDs, ECL devices (ECLDs) have attracted less attention due to their currently much lower performance. ECLD operation is typically based on an annihilation pathway that involves electron transfer between reduced and oxidized luminophore species; the intermediate radical ions produced during annihilation dramatically reduce device stability. Here, the effects of radical ions are mitigated by an exciplex formation pathway and a remarkable improvement in luminance, luminous efficacy, and operational lifetime is demonstrated. Electron donor and acceptor molecules are dissolved at high concentrations and recombined as an exciplex upon their oxidization/reduction. The exciplex then transfers its energy to a nearby dye, allowing the dye to emit light without undergoing oxidation/reduction. Furthermore, the application of a mesoporous TiO2 electrode increases the contact area and hence the number of molecules participating in ECL , thereby obtaining devices with a very high luminance of 3790 cd m-2 and a 30-fold improved operational lifetime. This study paves the way for the development of ECLDs into highly versatile light sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Ki Moon
- Humboldt Centre for Nano- and Biophotonics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 4-6, 50939, Köln, Germany
- Organic Semiconductor Centre, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, KY16 9SS, UK
| | - Julian F Butscher
- Humboldt Centre for Nano- and Biophotonics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 4-6, 50939, Köln, Germany
- Organic Semiconductor Centre, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, KY16 9SS, UK
| | - Malte C Gather
- Humboldt Centre for Nano- and Biophotonics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 4-6, 50939, Köln, Germany
- Organic Semiconductor Centre, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, KY16 9SS, UK
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Lin LH, Wang JY, You CY, Qiu LH, Lin JS, Zhang FL, Yang ZL, Zhang YJ, Chen X, Li JF. Shell-Isolated Nanoparticle-Enhanced Electrochemiluminescence. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2203513. [PMID: 36008122 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202203513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Enhanced electrochemiluminescence (ECL) aims to promote higher sensitivity and obtain better detection limit. The core-shell nanostructures, owing to unique surface plasmon resonance (SPR) enabling distance-dependent strong localized electromagnetic field, have attracted rising attention in enhanced ECL research and application. However, the present structures usually with porous shell involve electrocatalytic activity from the metal core and adsorption effect from the shell, which interfere with practical SPR enhancement contribution to ECL signal. Herein, to exclude the interference and unveil exact SPR-enhanced effect, shell-isolated nanoparticles (SHINs) whose shell gets thicker and becomes pinhole-free are developed by modifying pH value and particles concentration. Furthermore, allowing for the distribution of hotspots and stronger enhancement, excitation intensity and ECL reaction layer thickness are mainly investigated, and several types of SHINs-enhanced ECL platforms are prepared to fabricate distinct hotspot distribution via electrostatic attraction (submonolayer) and a layer-by-layer deposition method (monolayer). Consequently, the strongest enhancement up to ≈250-fold is achieved by monolayer SHINs with 10 nm shell, and the platform is applied in a "turn-off" mode sensing for dopamine. The platform provides new guidelines to shell preparation, interface engineering and hotspots fabrication for superior ECL enhancement and analytical application with high performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long-Hui Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Jing-Yu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Chao-Yu You
- Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Ling-Hang Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Jia-Sheng Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Fan-Li Zhang
- College of Optical and Electronic Technology, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Zhi-Lin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Yue-Jiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Xi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Jian-Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
- College of Optical and Electronic Technology, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
- Innovation Laboratory for Sciences and Technologies of Energy Materials of Fujian Province (IKKEM), Xiamen, 361005, China
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Ma H, Yi M, Messinger M, Wang G. Kinetics-Based Ratiometric Electrochemiluminescence Analysis for Signal Specificity: Case Studies of Piperazine Drug Discrimination with Au Nanoclusters. Anal Chem 2022; 94:11760-11766. [PMID: 35973062 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A multi-parameter calibration and analysis strategy has been developed based on the kinetics of charge transfer reactions. Absolute and ratiometric electrochemiluminescence signals are elucidated from single measurements for the detection of hydroxyzine and cetirizine as prototype drugs which greatly enhance the near-infrared electrochemiluminescence from atomically precise Au22 nanoclusters stabilized with lipoic acid ligands on ITO electrodes. The signal-on sensing mechanism eliminates the need for recognition elements and highly excess co-reactants in conventional electrochemiluminescence practice. The rates of sequential charge transfer reactions render specificity in electrochemiluminescence intensity and kinetics toward the target molecular/electronic structures and are conveniently controlled/optimized by operation parameters. Signal kinetic profiles, in stark contrast to steady-state or single-point recordings, not only improve the signal/noise ratio but also offer greater resolving power to differentiate analogue species and nonspecific interference. The fundamental kinetics-based ratiometric concept/strategy is not limited to a specific luminophore or a co-reactant and is thus generalizable. The case studies successfully detect and discriminate drug compounds at sub-nanomolar physiological ranges, with efficacy validated using synthetic urine toward point-of-care applications in therapeutic/abuse drug monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hedi Ma
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
| | - Meijun Yi
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
| | - Michael Messinger
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
| | - Gangli Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
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Lee JI, Choi H, Kong SH, Park S, Park D, Kim JS, Kwon SH, Kim J, Choi SH, Lee SG, Kim DH, Kang MS. Visco-Poroelastic Electrochemiluminescence Skin with Piezo-Ionic Effect. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2100321. [PMID: 34060148 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202100321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Following early research efforts devoted to achieving excellent sensitivity of electronic skins, recent design schemes for these devices have focused on strategies for transduction of spatially resolved sensing data into straightforward user-adaptive visual signals. Here, a material platform capable of transducing mechanical stimuli into visual readout is presented. The material layer comprises a mixture of an ionic transition metal complex luminophore and an ionic liquid (capable of producing electrochemiluminescence (ECL)) within a thermoplastic polyurethane matrix. The proposed material platform shows visco-poroelastic response to mechanical stress, which induces a change in the distribution of the ionic luminophore in the film, which is referred to as the piezo-ionic effect. This piezo-ionic effect is exploited to develop a simple device containing the composite layer sandwiched between two electrodes, which is termed "ECL skin". Emission from the ECL skin is examined, which increases with the applied normal/tensile stress. Additionally, locally applied stress to the ECL skin is spatially resolved and visualized without the use of spatially distributed arrays of pressure sensors. The simple fabrication and unique operation of the demonstrated ECL skin are expected to provide new insights into the design of materials for human-machine interactive electronic skins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Ik Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Hanbin Choi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok Hwan Kong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Soongsil University, Seoul, 06978, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangsik Park
- Department of Organic Materials and Fiber Engineering, Soongsil University, Seoul, 06978, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongmok Park
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo Sung Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Hyun Kwon
- Department of Organic Material Science and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungwook Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Hyung Choi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul, 04066, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Geol Lee
- School of Chemical Engineering, Department of Organic Material Science and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Do Hwan Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Sung Kang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Institute of Emergent Materials, Sogang University, Seoul, 04107, Republic of Korea
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Multi-ionic effects on the equilibrium and dynamic properties of electric double layers based on the Bikerman correction. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Gao H, Zhang N, Pan JB, Quan YW, Cheng YX, Chen HY, Xu JJ. Aggregation-Induced Electrochemiluminescence of Conjugated Pdots Containing a Trace Ir(III) Complex: Insights into Structure-Property Relationships. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:54012-54019. [PMID: 33211963 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c18197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
An approach to the design of iridium(III)-contained polytetraphenylethene Pdots that could exhibit highly efficient electrochemiluminescence (ECL) was proposed. The relationships of ECL performance between the iridium complex-embedded and end-capped aggregation-induced emission (AIE) active Pdots in aqueous media were investigated for the first time. The iridium complexes with cyclometalated ligand 6-phenylphenanthridine (pphent) were incorporated into the copolymers by either embedding (P0, P2-P5) or end-capping (P1) into the backbone via an ancillary 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy) ligand. Subsequently, the corresponding Pdots of P0-P5 encapsulated with poly(styrene-co-maleicanhydride) could be obtained by the nanoprecipitation method. Compared to Pdots0, Pdots2-Pdots5 with (pphent)2Ir(bpy) (M1) complex embedding, as the iridium complex content increases, ECL signals were decreased in the order of Pdots0 > Pdots2 > Pdots3 > Pdots4 > Pdots5; whereas among these Pdots of P0-P5, Pdots1 with M1 complex end-capping exhibited the highest ECL efficiency (relative to a Ru(bpy)32+ system of 18.9%) and 4.7-fold enhancement of the ECL signal compared to the parent Pdots of P0, which was mainly attributed to the good film conductivity of the completely conjugated architectures, thus prompting the intramolecular electron transfer. This work opened new avenues for designing highly efficient ECL emitters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Gao
- Key Lab of Mesoscopic Chemistry of MOE and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jian-Bin Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yi-Wu Quan
- Key Laboratory of High Performance Polymer Material and Technology of Ministry of Education, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yi-Xiang Cheng
- Key Lab of Mesoscopic Chemistry of MOE and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hong-Yuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jing-Juan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
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Wang F, Fu C, Huang C, Li N, Wang Y, Ge S, Yu J. Paper-based closed Au-Bipolar electrode electrochemiluminescence sensing platform for the detection of miRNA-155. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 150:111917. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2019.111917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Kim S, Lee JI, Yang J, Shin I, Earmme T, Kang MS. A Guide for Realizing Efficient Polymer Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells in a Single Active Layer Device Structure. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201901772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seunghan Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringSogang University Seoul 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Ik Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringSogang University Seoul 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Jeehye Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringSogang University Seoul 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Ik‐Soo Shin
- Department of ChemistrySoongsil University Seoul 06978 Republic of Korea
| | - Taeshik Earmme
- Department of Chemical EngineeringHongik University Seoul 04066 Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Sung Kang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringSogang University Seoul 04107 Republic of Korea
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Chen S, Ma H, Padelford JW, Qinchen W, Yu W, Wang S, Zhu M, Wang G. Near Infrared Electrochemiluminescence of Rod-Shape 25-Atom AuAg Nanoclusters That Is Hundreds-Fold Stronger Than That of Ru(bpy)3 Standard. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:9603-9609. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b02547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Atomic Engineering of Advanced Materials & Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chemistry for Inorganic/Organic Hybrid Functionalized Materials, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601, P. R. China
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
| | - Hedi Ma
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
| | - Jonathan W. Padelford
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
| | - Wanli Qinchen
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Atomic Engineering of Advanced Materials & Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chemistry for Inorganic/Organic Hybrid Functionalized Materials, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601, P. R. China
| | - Wei Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Atomic Engineering of Advanced Materials & Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chemistry for Inorganic/Organic Hybrid Functionalized Materials, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601, P. R. China
| | - Shuxin Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Atomic Engineering of Advanced Materials & Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chemistry for Inorganic/Organic Hybrid Functionalized Materials, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601, P. R. China
| | - Manzhou Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Atomic Engineering of Advanced Materials & Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chemistry for Inorganic/Organic Hybrid Functionalized Materials, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601, P. R. China
| | - Gangli Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
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