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Yarali E, Mirzaali MJ, Ghalayaniesfahani A, Accardo A, Diaz-Payno PJ, Zadpoor AA. 4D Printing for Biomedical Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2402301. [PMID: 38580291 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202402301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
4D (bio-)printing endows 3D printed (bio-)materials with multiple functionalities and dynamic properties. 4D printed materials have been recently used in biomedical engineering for the design and fabrication of biomedical devices, such as stents, occluders, microneedles, smart 3D-cell engineered microenvironments, drug delivery systems, wound closures, and implantable medical devices. However, the success of 4D printing relies on the rational design of 4D printed objects, the selection of smart materials, and the availability of appropriate types of external (multi-)stimuli. Here, this work first highlights the different types of smart materials, external stimuli, and design strategies used in 4D (bio-)printing. Then, it presents a critical review of the biomedical applications of 4D printing and discusses the future directions of biomedical research in this exciting area, including in vivo tissue regeneration studies, the implementation of multiple materials with reversible shape memory behaviors, the creation of fast shape-transformation responses, the ability to operate at the microscale, untethered activation and control, and the application of (machine learning-based) modeling approaches to predict the structure-property and design-shape transformation relationships of 4D (bio)printed constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebrahim Yarali
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands
| | - Mohammad J Mirzaali
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands
| | - Ava Ghalayaniesfahani
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering, Giulio Natta, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32, Milano, 20133, Italy
| | - Angelo Accardo
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands
| | - Pedro J Diaz-Payno
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands
- Department of Orthopedics and Sports Medicine, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, 3015 CN, The Netherlands
| | - Amir A Zadpoor
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands
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2
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Yao X, Chen H, Qin H, Cong HP. Nanocomposite Hydrogel Actuators with Ordered Structures: From Nanoscale Control to Macroscale Deformations. SMALL METHODS 2024; 8:e2300414. [PMID: 37365950 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Flexible intelligent actuators with the characteristics of flexibility, safety and scalability, are highly promising in industrial production, biomedical fields, environmental monitoring, and soft robots. Nanocomposite hydrogels are attractive candidates for soft actuators due to their high pliability, intelligent responsiveness, and capability to execute large-scale rapid reversible deformations under external stimuli. Here, the recent advances of nanocomposite hydrogels as soft actuators are reviewed and focus is on the construction of elaborate and programmable structures by the assembly of nano-objects in the hydrogel matrix. With the help of inducing the gradient or oriented distributions of the nanounits during the gelation process by the external forces or molecular interactions, nanocomposite hydrogels with ordered structures are achieved, which can perform bending, spiraling, patterned deformations, and biomimetic complex shape changes. Given great advantages of these intricate yet programmable shape-morphing, nanocomposite hydrogel actuators have presented high potentials in the fields of moving robots, energy collectors, and biomedicines. In the end, the challenges and future perspectives of this emerging field of nanocomposite hydrogel actuators are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yao
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Hong Chen
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Haili Qin
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Huai-Ping Cong
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
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3
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Zuo L, Wu M, Zhang H, Zhang S, Ma Z, Luo J, Ding C, Li J. A hydrogel gripper enabling fine movement based on spatiotemporal mineralization. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:8966-8973. [PMID: 37695077 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb01252b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Fine tailoring of the subtle movements of a hydrogel actuator through simple methods has widespread application prospects in wearable electronics, bionic robots and biomedical engineering. However, to the best of our knowledge, this challenge is not yet completed. Inspired by the diffusion-reaction process in nature, a hydrogel gripper with the capability of fine movement was successfully prepared based on the spatiotemporal fabrication of the polypyrrole (PPY) pattern in a poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) hydrogel. The hydrogel was given gradient porous structures using a one-step UV irradiation method. Moreover, photothermal PPY patterns on the hydrogel were obtained through spatiotemporal mineralization of ferric hydroxide followed by the polymerization of pyrrole in a controllable manner. Taking advantage of the unique structures, the hydrogel gripper can not only achieve reversible grasping-releasing of substrates with the tuning of temperature (similar to that of hands), but also generate delicate movement under the irradiation of light (resembling that of finger joints). The strategy reported here is easily accessible and there is no need for sophisticated templates, therefore making it superior to other existing methods. We believe this work will provide references for the design and application of more advanced soft actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangrui Zuo
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
| | - Mingzhen Wu
- Guangxi Institute for Food and Drug Control, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Hongbo Zhang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
| | - Shikai Zhang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
| | - Zhengxin Ma
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
| | - Jun Luo
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
| | - Chunmei Ding
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
| | - Jianshu Li
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Med-X Center for Materials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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4
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Emerging 4D printing strategies for on-demand local actuation & micro printing of soft materials. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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5
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Li M, Mei J, Friend J, Bae J. Acousto-Photolithography for Programmable Shape Deformation of Composite Hydrogel Sheets. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2204288. [PMID: 36216774 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202204288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Stimuli-responsive hydrogels with programmable shapes produced by defined patterns of particles are of great interest for the fabrication of small-scale soft actuators and robots. Patterning the particles in the hydrogels during fabrication generally requires external magnetic or electric fields, thus limiting the material choice for the particles. Acoustically driven particle manipulation, however, solely depends on the acoustic impedance difference between the particles and the surrounding fluid, making it a more versatile method to spatially control particles. Here, an approach is reported by combining direct acoustic force to align photothermal particles and photolithography to spatially immobilize these alignments within a temperature-responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogel to trigger shape deformation under temperature change and light exposure. The spatial distribution of particles can be tuned by the power and frequency of the acoustic waves. Specifically, changing the spacing between the particle patterns and position alters the bending curvature and direction of this composite hydrogel sheet, respectively. Moreover, the orientation (i.e., relative angle) of the particle alignments with respect to the long axis of laser-cut hydrogel strips governs the bending behaviors and the subsequent shape deformation by external stimuli. This acousto-photolithography provides a means of spatiotemporal programming of the internal heterogeneity of composite polymeric systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghao Li
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Jiyang Mei
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - James Friend
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jacobs School of Engineering, Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Jinhye Bae
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
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Kim J, Lee S, Choi J, Baek K, Shim TS, Hyun JK, Park SJ. Shape-Changing DNA-Linked Nanoparticle Films Dictated by Lateral and Vertical Patterns. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2109091. [PMID: 35119767 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202109091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The self-assembly of nanoscale building blocks into complex nanostructures with controlled structural anisotropy can open up new opportunities for realizing active nanomaterials exhibiting spatiotemporal structural transformations. Here, a combination of bottom-up DNA-directed self-assembly and top-down photothermal patterning is adopted to fabricate free-standing nanoparticle films with vertical and lateral heterogeneity. This approach involves the construction of multicomponent plasmonic nanoparticle films by DNA-directed layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly, followed by on-demand lateral patterning by the direct photothermal writing method. The distinct plasmonic properties of nanospheres and nanorods constituting the multidomain films enable photopatterning in a selective domain with precisely controlled vertical depths. The photopatterned films exhibit complex morphing actions instructed by the lateral and vertical patterns inscribed in the film as well as the information carried in DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongwook Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, South Korea
| | - Sunghee Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, South Korea
| | - Jisu Choi
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, South Korea
| | - Kyungnae Baek
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, South Korea
| | - Tae Soup Shim
- Department of Energy Systems Research and Department of Chemical Engineering, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499, South Korea
| | - Jerome Kartham Hyun
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, South Korea
| | - So-Jung Park
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, South Korea
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Xu X, Hao X, Hu J, Gao W, Ning N, Yu B, Zhang L, Tian M. Recyclable silicone elastic light-triggered actuator with a reconfigurable Janus structure and self-healable performance. Polym Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d1py01632f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A recyclable silicone elastic light-triggered actuator with reconfigurable Janus structure and self-healable performance is reported, which was fabricated via heterogeneous crosslinking induced by a gradient intensity of UV light due to CNTs accretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xinyue Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Jing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Weisheng Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- China National Petroleum & Chemical Planning Institute, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Nanying Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Key Laboratory of Carbon Fiber and Functional Polymers, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Bing Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Key Laboratory of Carbon Fiber and Functional Polymers, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Liqun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Key Laboratory of Carbon Fiber and Functional Polymers, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Ming Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Key Laboratory of Carbon Fiber and Functional Polymers, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
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8
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Tang J, Zeng L, Liu Z. Fabrication of patterned magnetic hydrogels by ion transfer printing. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:8059-8067. [PMID: 34524342 DOI: 10.1039/d1sm00869b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic hydrogels have found a myriad of applications in bioengineering and soft robotics. As the function of magnetic hydrogels is affected by the distribution of magnetic nanoparticles, it is imperative to propose a strategy for fabricating patterned magnetic hydrogels. However, previous strategies can only achieve very simple distribution by using external magnetic fields to guide the chain-like assembly of nanoparticles. It remains challenging to realize the complex distribution of magnetic nanoparticles in a hydrogel. Here we propose an ion transfer printing strategy to prepare patterned magnetic hydrogels, taking advantage of the ion permeation and nanoparticle precipitation in the hydrogel. The polyacrylamide (PAAm) hydrogel is loaded with Fe2+/Fe3+ ions and covered with a patterned filter paper with OH- ions to generate Fe3O4 nanoparticles locally. The effect of the ion concentration and covering time on the generation of nanoparticles is investigated by using a reaction-diffusion model. Furthermore, the magnetothermal response of the patterned magnetic hydrogels has been characterized to reveal the distribution and thermogenesis of magnetic nanoparticles. We hope that the fabricated magnetic hydrogels with complex patterns can open up new opportunities for applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingda Tang
- State Key Lab for Strength and Vibration of Mechanical Structures, International Center for Applied Mechanics, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
| | - Liangsong Zeng
- State Key Lab for Strength and Vibration of Mechanical Structures, International Center for Applied Mechanics, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
| | - Zishun Liu
- State Key Lab for Strength and Vibration of Mechanical Structures, International Center for Applied Mechanics, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
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9
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Chen Y, Liu T, Wang G, Liu J, Zhao L, Zhang R, Yu Y. Intelligent response bilayer hydrogel with controllable deformation-recovery and shape memory. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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10
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Gazil O, Gancheva T, Bilodeau-Calame M, Favis BD, Virgilio N. Controlling the distribution of nanoparticles in hydrogels via interfacial synthesis. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2020; 2:5263-5270. [PMID: 36132018 PMCID: PMC9419463 DOI: 10.1039/d0na00488j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In this article, a dual-solvent method is presented which allows for precise control over the distribution of nanoparticles (NPs) in hydrogels. The technique is based on the interfacial reaction between a reducing agent (herein THPC) initially solubilized in the hydrogel phase, and an organometallic precursor (herein Au(PPh3)Cl) solubilized in the surrounding organic liquid phase. When the organic phase is completely immiscible with water, the interfacial reaction yields a fragile monolayer film of NPs at the hydrogel surface. Then, the addition of a co-solvent (miscible with both aqueous and organic phases) allows precise tuning over the distribution of NPs, from a fine and well-anchored layer at the interface, to the whole gel volume. As a result, it is possible to independently control the size and concentration of NPs, and their distribution. The impact of such control is demonstrated with the reduction of p-nitrophenol to p-aminophenol catalyzed by gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). When AuNPs are mostly localized at the gel surface, the apparent reaction rate is more than 10× superior compared to AuNPs distributed in the whole gel - at comparable particle content and size. This approach is straightforward, decisive and compatible with broad arrays of NPs and hydrogel chemistries, and solvent combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Gazil
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal C.P. 6079 Succursale Centre-Ville Montréal Québec H3C 3A7 Canada
| | - Teodora Gancheva
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal C.P. 6079 Succursale Centre-Ville Montréal Québec H3C 3A7 Canada
| | - Michel Bilodeau-Calame
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal C.P. 6079 Succursale Centre-Ville Montréal Québec H3C 3A7 Canada
| | - Basil D Favis
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal C.P. 6079 Succursale Centre-Ville Montréal Québec H3C 3A7 Canada
| | - Nick Virgilio
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal C.P. 6079 Succursale Centre-Ville Montréal Québec H3C 3A7 Canada
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Kuenstler AS, Lahikainen M, Zhou H, Xu W, Priimagi A, Hayward RC. Reconfiguring Gaussian Curvature of Hydrogel Sheets with Photoswitchable Host-Guest Interactions. ACS Macro Lett 2020; 9:1172-1177. [PMID: 32864191 PMCID: PMC7445929 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Photoinduced shape morphing has implications in fields ranging from soft robotics to biomedical devices. Despite considerable effort in this area, it remains a challenge to design materials that can be both rapidly deployed and reconfigured into multiple different three-dimensional forms, particularly in aqueous environments. In this work, we present a simple method to program and rewrite spatial variations in swelling and, therefore, Gaussian curvature in thin sheets of hydrogels using photoswitchable supramolecular complexation of azobenzene pendent groups with dissolved α-cyclodextrin. We show that the extent of swelling can be programmed via the proportion of azobenzene isomers, with a 60% decrease in areal swelling from the all trans to the predominantly cis state near room temperature. The use of thin gel sheets provides fast response times in the range of a few tens of seconds, while the shape change is persistent in the absence of light thanks to the slow rate of thermal cis-trans isomerization. Finally, we demonstrate that a single gel sheet can be programmed with a first swelling pattern via spatially defined illumination with ultraviolet light, then erased with white light, and finally redeployed with a different swelling pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexa S. Kuenstler
- Department of Polymer
Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Markus Lahikainen
- Smart Photonic Materials, Faculty of Engineering
and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541F1-33101, Tampere, Finland
| | - Hantao Zhou
- Department of Polymer
Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Wenwen Xu
- Department of Polymer
Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Arri Priimagi
- Smart Photonic Materials, Faculty of Engineering
and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541F1-33101, Tampere, Finland
| | - Ryan C. Hayward
- Department of Polymer
Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
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