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Chen Y, Chen J, Li Z. Cold Cathodes with Two-Dimensional van der Waals Materials. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:2437. [PMID: 37686945 PMCID: PMC10490007 DOI: 10.3390/nano13172437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional van der Waals materials could be used as electron emitters alone or stacked in a heterostructure. Many significant phenomena of two-dimensional van der Waals field emitters have been observed and predicted since the landmark discovery of graphene. Due to the wide variety of heterostructures that integrate an atomic monolayer or multilayers with insulator nanofilms or metallic cathodes by van der Waals force, the diversity of van der Waals materials is large to be chosen from, which are appealing for further investigation. Until now, increasing the efficiency, stability, and uniformity in electron emission of cold cathodes with two-dimensional materials is still of interest in research. Some novel behaviors in electron emission, such as coherence and directionality, have been revealed by the theoretical study down to the atomic scale and could lead to innovative applications. Although intensive emission in the direction normal to two-dimensional emitters has been observed in experiments, the theoretical mechanism is still incomplete. In this paper, we will review some late progresses related to the cold cathodes with two-dimensional van der Waals materials, both in experiments and in the theoretical study, emphasizing the phenomena which are absent in the conventional cold cathodes. The review will cover the fabrication of several kinds of emitter structures for field emission applications, the state of the art of their field emission properties and the existing field emission model. In the end, some perspectives on their future research trend will also be given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yicong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technologies, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Jun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technologies, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Zhibing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Science, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen 518000, China
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2
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Takashima H, Inaguma Y, Nagao M, Murakami K. Hexagonal Boron Nitride Seed Layer-Assisted van der Waals Growth of BaSnO 3 Perovskite Films. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:28778-28782. [PMID: 37576659 PMCID: PMC10413831 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c03666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
We have succeeded in obtaining BaSnO3 perovskite thin films with remarkable near-infrared luminescence by van der Waals growth. The films were grown on quartz glass substrates by pulsed laser deposition using hexagonal boron nitride as the seed layer, and their crystallinity was confirmed by X-ray diffraction and cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy. The near-infrared emission of the grown film exhibited a broad emission peak centered at 920 nm. The transparency of the BaSnO3 film (thickness = 1000 nm)/ hexagonal boron nitride /double-sided optically polished quartz glass substrate was approximately 90% at approximately 500 nm with or without the BaSnO3 film. Films showing remarkable near-infrared emission and high transparency obtained by van der Waals-type growth could be used in practical wavelength conversion devices that improve the efficiency of Si single-crystal solar cells. The hexagonal boron nitride seed layer supporting the van der Waals growth is an effective method for high-quality crystal growth of films. It can be used for perovskite-type oxides with many functionalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Takashima
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Inaguma
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin
University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8588, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Nagao
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Katsuhisa Murakami
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
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3
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Yamamoto M, Murata H, Miyata N, Takashima H, Nagao M, Mimura H, Neo Y, Murakami K. Low-Temperature Direct Synthesis of Multilayered h-BN without Catalysts by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:5497-5505. [PMID: 36816676 PMCID: PMC9933473 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Low-temperature direct synthesis of thick multilayered hexagonal-boron nitride (h-BN) on semiconducting and insulating substrates is required to produce high-performance electronic devices based on two-dimensional (2D) materials. In this study, multilayered h-BN with a thickness exceeding 5 nm was directly synthesized on quartz and Si at low temperatures, between 400 and 500 °C, by inductively coupled plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition using borazine as the precursor material. The quality and thickness of the h-BN crystals were investigated with respect to synthesis parameters, namely, temperature, radio frequency power, N2 flow rate, and H2 flow rate. Introducing N2 and H2 carrier gases critically affected the deposition rate, and increasing the carrier gas flow rate enhanced the h-BN crystal quality. The typical optical band gap of synthesized h-BN was approximately 5.8 eV, consistent with that of previous studies. The full width at half-maximum of the h-BN Raman peak was 32-33 cm-1, comparable to that of commercially available multilayered h-BN on Cu foil. These results are expected to facilitate the development of 2D materials for electronics applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Yamamoto
- Research
Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011, Japan
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Murata
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Miyata
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Takashima
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Nagao
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Hidenori Mimura
- Research
Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011, Japan
| | - Yoichiro Neo
- Research
Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011, Japan
| | - Katsuhisa Murakami
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
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Matsumoto N, Takao Y, Nagao M, Murakami K. Oxidation Resistance Improvement of Graphene-Oxide-Semiconductor Planar-Type Electron Sources Using h-BN as an Oxygen-Resistant, Electron-Transmissive Coating. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:33004-33009. [PMID: 36157737 PMCID: PMC9494642 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c02709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Graphene-oxide-semiconductor (GOS) planar-type electron emission devices with a hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) protective layer have demonstrated improved oxidation resistance while maintaining their emission performance. The devices with a monolayer or a multilayer (13 nm in thickness) h-BN protective layer can emit electrons even after oxygen plasma exposure (ashing). Remarkably, the device with a monolayer h-BN was able to emit electrons with a maximum efficiency of 11% after a 4-min ashing, showing that a thin h-BN protection layer can provide oxygen tolerance to GOS devices without a significant emission loss. The thicker multilayer h-BN imparted higher oxidation resistance to the device but with decreased emission efficiency compared with the device with monolayer h-BN. Thus, the use of h-BN necessitates a trade-off between the device's emission performance and its oxidation resistance. In addition, the etching rate of h-BN by the oxygen plasma treatment was found to increase by exposure to air after the first plasma treatment, which indicates that the adherence of H2O to the surface of h-BN is one probable cause of h-BN etching during the ashing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoyuki Matsumoto
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, and Ocean Engineering, Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai,
Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba 305-8568, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Takao
- Division
of Systems Research, Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai,
Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Nagao
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba 305-8568, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Katsuhisa Murakami
- National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba 305-8568, Ibaraki, Japan
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Shtansky DV, Matveev AT, Permyakova ES, Leybo DV, Konopatsky AS, Sorokin PB. Recent Progress in Fabrication and Application of BN Nanostructures and BN-Based Nanohybrids. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:2810. [PMID: 36014675 PMCID: PMC9416166 DOI: 10.3390/nano12162810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Due to its unique physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, such as a low specific density, large specific surface area, excellent thermal stability, oxidation resistance, low friction, good dispersion stability, enhanced adsorbing capacity, large interlayer shear force, and wide bandgap, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) nanostructures are of great interest in many fields. These include, but are not limited to, (i) heterogeneous catalysts, (ii) promising nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery to tumor cells and nanoparticles containing therapeutic agents to fight bacterial and fungal infections, (iii) reinforcing phases in metal, ceramics, and polymer matrix composites, (iv) additives to liquid lubricants, (v) substrates for surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy, (vi) agents for boron neutron capture therapy, (vii) water purifiers, (viii) gas and biological sensors, and (ix) quantum dots, single photon emitters, and heterostructures for electronic, plasmonic, optical, optoelectronic, semiconductor, and magnetic devices. All of these areas are developing rapidly. Thus, the goal of this review is to analyze the critical mass of knowledge and the current state-of-the-art in the field of BN-based nanomaterial fabrication and application based on their amazing properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry V. Shtansky
- Labotoary of Inorganic Nanomaterials, National University of Science and Technology “MISiS”, Leninsky Prospect 4, 119049 Moscow, Russia
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Lewis D, Jordan B, Pedowitz M, Pennachio DJ, Hajzus JR, Myers-Ward R, Daniels KM. Phonon assisted electron emission from quasi-freestanding bilayer epitaxial graphene microstructures. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:375202. [PMID: 35671745 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac7653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Electron emission from quasi-freestanding bilayer epitaxial graphene (QFEG) on a silicon carbide substrate is reported, demonstrating emission currents as high as 8.5μA, at ∼200 °C, under 0.3 Torr vacuum. Given the significantly low turn-on temperature of these QFEG devices, ∼150°C, the electron emission is explained by phonon-assisted electron emission, where the acoustic and optical phonons of QFEG causes carrier acceleration and emission. Devices of differing dimensions and shapes are fabricated via a simple and scalable fabrication procedure and tested. Variations in device morphology increase the density of dangling bonds, which can act as electron emission sites. Devices exhibit emission enhancement at increased temperatures, attributed to greater phonon densities. Devices exhibit emission under various test conditions, and a superior design and operating methodology are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lewis
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
- Institute for Research in Electronics and Applied Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
| | - Brendan Jordan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
- Institute for Research in Electronics and Applied Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
| | - Michael Pedowitz
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
- Institute for Research in Electronics and Applied Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
| | - Daniel J Pennachio
- US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 23075, United States of America
| | - Jenifer R Hajzus
- US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 23075, United States of America
| | - Rachael Myers-Ward
- US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 23075, United States of America
| | - Kevin M Daniels
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
- Institute for Research in Electronics and Applied Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
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7
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Liu F, Guo L, DeFazio J, Pavlenko V, Yamamoto M, Moody NA, Yamaguchi H. Photoemission from Bialkali Photocathodes through an Atomically Thin Protection Layer. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:1710-1717. [PMID: 34935342 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c19393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Photocathodes are essential components for various applications requiring photon-to-free-electron conversion, for example, high-sensitivity photodetectors and electron injectors for free-electron lasers. Alkali antimonide thin films are widely used as photocathode materials owing to their high quantum efficiency (QE) in the visible spectral range; however, their lifetime can be limited even in ultrahigh vacuum due to their high reactivity to residual gases and sensitivity to ion back-bombardment in these applications. An ambitious technical challenge is to extend the lifetime of bialkali photocathodes by coating them with suitable materials that can isolate the photocathode films from residual gases while still maintaining their highly emissive properties. We propose the use of graphene, an atomically thin two-dimensional material with gas impermeability, as a promising candidate for this purpose. Here, we report that high-quality bialkali antimonide can be grown on a two-layer (2L) suspended graphene substrate with a peak QE of 15%. More importantly, by comparing the photoemission through varying layers of graphene, we demonstrate that photoelectrons can transmit through few-layer graphene with a maximum QE of over 0.7% at 4.5 eV for 2L graphene, corresponding to a transmission efficiency of 5%. These results demonstrate important progress toward fully encapsulated bialkali photocathodes having both high QEs and long lifetimes using atomically thin protection layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangze Liu
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
- Advanced Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Lei Guo
- Nagoya University Synchrotron Radiation Research Center (NUSR), Furo, Chikusa, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
| | - Jeffrey DeFazio
- Photonis Defense Inc., 1000 New Holland Avenue, Lancaster, Pennsylvania 17601, United States
| | - Vitaly Pavlenko
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Masahiro Yamamoto
- Accelerator Division 6, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0801, Japan
| | - Nathan A Moody
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Hisato Yamaguchi
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
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8
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Fabrication of Pt- and Au-coated W Nano Tip with Electroplated Films as a Noble-metal Source toward Viable Application for Long-life Electron Source. E-JOURNAL OF SURFACE SCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2021.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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9
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Rughoobur G, Jain L, Akinwande AI. Electron transmission through suspended graphene membranes measured with a low-voltage gated Si field emitter array. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:285201. [PMID: 33831850 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/abf5fb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We experimentally demonstrate the transmission of electrons through different number (1, 2, and 5) of suspended graphene layers at electron energies between 20 and 250 eV. Electrons with initial energies lower than 40 eV are generated using silicon field emitter arrays with 1μm pitch, and accelerated towards the graphene layers supported by a silicon nitride grid biased at voltages from -20 to 200 V. We measured significant increase in current collected at the anode with the presence of graphene, which is attributed to the possible generation of secondary electrons by primary electrons impinging on the graphene membrane. Highest output current was recorded with monolayer graphene at approximately 90 eV, with up to 1.7 times the incident current. The transparency of graphene to low-energy electrons and its impermeability to gas molecules could enable low-voltage field emission electron sources, which often require ultra-high vacuum, to operate in a relatively poor vacuum environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Girish Rughoobur
- Microsystems Technology Laboratories, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 60 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - Lay Jain
- Microsystems Technology Laboratories, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 60 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - Akintunde I Akinwande
- Microsystems Technology Laboratories, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 60 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
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10
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Chen Y, Li Z, Chen J. Abnormal Electron Emission in a Vertical Graphene/Hexagonal Boron Nitride van der Waals Heterostructure Driven by a Hot Hole-Induced Auger Process. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:57505-57513. [PMID: 33258372 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c13352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the scattering process of field injection hot carriers is important for modulating their behaviors, which is the key for improving the efficiency of charge transfer and energy conversion in hot carrier devices. In this work, a significant electron thermalization induced by Auger scattering between a field injection hot hole and a native cold electron has been observed in a vertical single layer graphene/hexagonal boron nitride/few layer graphene (Gr/hBN/FLG) device by measuring the vacuum electron emission characteristics. For the first time, it is found that vacuum electron emission can be measured under both directions of bias within the device. Furthermore, electrons can be emitted even when the applied bias energy is smaller than the work function of the Gr cathode. Further analysis of the emission electron kinetic energy indicates that the low turn-on bias results from the emission of energetic electrons that are ∼3 eV higher than the Fermi level. A semiquantitative model based on hot hole-induced Auger electron emission is established to reproduce the results. All of these findings not only expand our understanding of the hot carrier scattering process in graphene but also provide insights into the applications of hot carrier devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yicong Chen
- State Key Lab of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Lab of Display Material and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong 510275, People's Republic of China
- School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong 510275, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhibing Li
- State Key Lab of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Lab of Display Material and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong 510275, People's Republic of China
- School of Physics, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong 510275, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Chen
- State Key Lab of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Lab of Display Material and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong 510275, People's Republic of China
- School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong 510275, People's Republic of China
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11
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He Y, Tian H, Das P, Cui Z, Pena P, Chiang I, Shi W, Xu L, Li Y, Yang T, Isarraraz M, Ozkan CS, Ozkan M, Lake RK, Liu J. Growth of High-Quality Hexagonal Boron Nitride Single-Layer Films on Carburized Ni Substrates for Metal-Insulator-Metal Tunneling Devices. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:35318-35327. [PMID: 32635717 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c07201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) plays a significant role in nanoscale electrical and optical devices because of its superior properties. However, the difficulties in the controllable growth of high-quality films hinder its applications. One of the crucial factors that influence the quality of the films obtained via epitaxy is the substrate property. Here, we report a study of 2D h-BN growth on carburized Ni substrates using molecular beam epitaxy. It was found that the carburization of Ni substrates with different surface orientations leads to different kinetics of h-BN growth. While the carburization of Ni(100) enhances the h-BN growth, the speed of the h-BN growth on carburized Ni(111) reduces. As-grown continuous single-layer h-BN films are used to fabricate Ni/h-BN/Ni metal-insulator-metal (MIM) devices, which demonstrate a high breakdown electric field of 12.9 MV/cm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanwei He
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Hao Tian
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Protik Das
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Zhenjun Cui
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Pedro Pena
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Ivan Chiang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Wenhao Shi
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Long Xu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Yuan Li
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Tianchen Yang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Miguel Isarraraz
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Cengiz S Ozkan
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Mihrimah Ozkan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Roger K Lake
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Jianlin Liu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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