1
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Zhao M, Zhang B, Wu X, Xiao Y. Whole-Cell Bioconversion Systems for Efficient Synthesis of Monolignols from L-Tyrosine in Escherichia coli. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:14799-14808. [PMID: 38899526 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c02611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Monolignols and their derivatives exhibit various pharmaceutical and physiological characteristics, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, they remain difficult to synthesize. In this study, we engineered several whole-cell bioconversion systems with carboxylate reductase (CAR)-mediated pathways for efficient synthesis of p-coumaryl, caffeyl, and coniferyl alcohols from l-tyrosine in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). By overexpressing the l-tyrosine ammonia lyase from Flavobacterium johnsoniae (FjTAL), carboxylate reductase from Segniliparus rugosus (SruCAR), alcohol dehydrogenase YqhD and hydroxylase HpaBC from E. coli, and caffeate 3-O-methyltransferase (COMT) from Arabidopsis thaliana, three enzyme cascades FjTAL-SruCAR-YqhD, FjTAL-SruCAR-YqhD-HpaBC, and FjTAL-SruCAR-YqhD-HpaBC-COMT were constructed to produce 1028.5 mg/L p-coumaryl alcohol, 1015.3 mg/L caffeyl alcohol, and 411.4 mg/L coniferyl alcohol from 1500, 1500, and 1000 mg/L l-tyrosine, with productivities of 257.1, 203.1, and 82.3 mg/L/h, respectively. This work provides an efficient strategy for the biosynthesis of p-coumaryl, caffeyl, and coniferyl alcohols from l-tyrosine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingtao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan RD. Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Baohui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan RD. Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xiaofeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan RD. Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yi Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan RD. Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
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2
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Shi T, Sun X, Yuan Q, Wang J, Shen X. Exploring the role of flavin-dependent monooxygenases in the biosynthesis of aromatic compounds. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS AND BIOPRODUCTS 2024; 17:46. [PMID: 38520003 PMCID: PMC10958861 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-024-02490-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Hydroxylated aromatic compounds exhibit exceptional biological activities. In the biosynthesis of these compounds, three types of hydroxylases are commonly employed: cytochrome P450 (CYP450), pterin-dependent monooxygenase (PDM), and flavin-dependent monooxygenase (FDM). Among these, FDM is a preferred choice due to its small molecular weight, stable expression in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic fermentation systems, and a relatively high concentration of necessary cofactors. However, the catalytic efficiency of many FDMs falls short of meeting the demands of large-scale production. Additionally, challenges arise from the limited availability of cofactors and compatibility issues among enzyme components. Recently, significant progress has been achieved in improving its catalytic efficiency, but have not yet detailed and informative viewed so far. Therefore, this review emphasizes the advancements in FDMs for the biosynthesis of hydroxylated aromatic compounds and presents a summary of three strategies aimed at enhancing their catalytic efficiency: (a) Developing efficient enzyme mutants through protein engineering; (b) enhancing the supply and rapid circulation of critical cofactors; (c) facilitating cofactors delivery for enhancing FDMs catalytic efficiency. Furthermore, the current challenges and further perspectives on improving catalytic efficiency of FDMs are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Xinxiao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Qipeng Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Jia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
| | - Xiaolin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
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Sun P, Xu S, Tian Y, Chen P, Wu D, Zheng P. 4-Hydroxyphenylacetate 3-Hydroxylase (4HPA3H): A Vigorous Monooxygenase for Versatile O-Hydroxylation Applications in the Biosynthesis of Phenolic Derivatives. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1222. [PMID: 38279222 PMCID: PMC10816480 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25021222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
4-Hydroxyphenylacetate 3-hydroxylase (4HPA3H) is a long-known class of two-component flavin-dependent monooxygenases from bacteria, including an oxygenase component (EC 1.14.14.9) and a reductase component (EC 1.5.1.36), with the latter being accountable for delivering the cofactor (reduced flavin) essential for o-hydroxylation. 4HPA3H has a broad substrate spectrum involved in key biological processes, including cellular catabolism, detoxification, and the biosynthesis of bioactive molecules. Additionally, it specifically hydroxylates the o-position of the C4 position of the benzene ring in phenolic compounds, generating high-value polyhydroxyphenols. As a non-P450 o-hydroxylase, 4HPA3H offers a viable alternative for the de novo synthesis of valuable natural products. The enzyme holds the potential to replace plant-derived P450s in the o-hydroxylation of plant polyphenols, addressing the current significant challenge in engineering specific microbial strains with P450s. This review summarizes the source distribution, structural properties, and mechanism of 4HPA3Hs and their application in the biosynthesis of natural products in recent years. The potential industrial applications and prospects of 4HPA3H biocatalysts are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Pu Zheng
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (P.S.); (Y.T.); (P.C.); (D.W.)
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4
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Pimviriyakul P, Buttranon S, Soithongcharoen S, Supawatkon C, Disayabootr K, Watthaisong P, Tinikul R, Jaruwat A, Chaiyen P, Chitnumsub P, Maenpuen S. Structure and biochemical characterization of an extradiol 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetate 2,3-dioxygenase from Acinetobacter baumannii. Arch Biochem Biophys 2023; 747:109768. [PMID: 37769893 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2023.109768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetate (DHPA) 2,3-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.15) from Acinetobacter baumannii (AbDHPAO) is an enzyme that catalyzes the 2,3-extradiol ring-cleavage of DHPA in the p-hydroxyphenylacetate (HPA) degradation pathway. While the biochemical reactions of various DHPAOs have been reported, only structures of DHPAO from Brevibacterium fuscum and their homologs are available. Here, we report the X-ray structure and biochemical characterization of an Fe2+-specific AbDHPAO that shares 12% sequence identity to the enzyme from B. fuscum. The 1.8 Å X-ray structure of apo-AbDHPAO was determined with four subunits per asymmetric unit, consistent with a homotetrameric structure. Interestingly, the αβ-sandwiched fold of the AbDHPAO subunit is different from the dual β-barrel-like motif of the well-characterized B. fuscum DHPAO structures; instead, it is similar to the structures of non-DHPA extradiol dioxygenases from Comamonas sp. and Sphingomonas paucimobilis. Similarly, these extradiol dioxygenases share the same chemistry owing to a conserved 2-His-1-carboxylate catalytic motif. Structure analysis and molecular docking suggested that the Fe2+ cofactor and substrate binding sites consist of the conserved residues His12, His57, and Glu238 forming a 2-His-1-carboxylate motif ligating to Fe2+ and DHPA bound with Fe2+ in an octahedral coordination. In addition to DHPA, AbDHPAO can also use other 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetate derivatives with different aliphatic carboxylic acid substituents as substrates, albeit with low reactivity. Altogether, this report provides a better understanding of the structure and biochemical properties of AbDHPAO and its homologs, which is advancing further modification of DHPAO in future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panu Pimviriyakul
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | - Supacha Buttranon
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand; School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Sahachat Soithongcharoen
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand; School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Cheerapat Supawatkon
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand; School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Kasidis Disayabootr
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand
| | - Pratchaya Watthaisong
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Ruchanok Tinikul
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Aritsara Jaruwat
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin road, Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Penchit Chitnumsub
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin road, Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand.
| | - Somchart Maenpuen
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand.
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5
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Yang K, Zhang Q, Zhao W, Hu S, Lv C, Huang J, Mei J, Mei L. Advances in 4-Hydroxyphenylacetate-3-hydroxylase Monooxygenase. Molecules 2023; 28:6699. [PMID: 37764475 PMCID: PMC10537072 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Catechols have important applications in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, and functional material industries. 4-hydroxyphenylacetate-3-hydroxylase (4HPA3H), a two-component enzyme system comprising HpaB (monooxygenase) and HpaC (FAD oxidoreductase), demonstrates significant potential for catechol production because it can be easily expressed, is highly active, and exhibits ortho-hydroxylation activity toward a broad spectrum of phenol substrates. HpaB determines the ortho-hydroxylation efficiency and substrate spectrum of the enzyme; therefore, studying its structure-activity relationship, improving its properties, and developing a robust HpaB-conducting system are of significance and value; indeed, considerable efforts have been made in these areas in recent decades. Here, we review the classification, molecular structure, catalytic mechanism, primary efforts in protein engineering, and industrial applications of HpaB in catechol synthesis. Current trends in the further investigation of HpaB are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo Tech University, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Qianchao Zhang
- School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo Tech University, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Weirui Zhao
- School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo Tech University, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Sheng Hu
- School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo Tech University, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Changjiang Lv
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Jun Huang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Jiaqi Mei
- Hangzhou Huadong Medicine Group Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310011, China
| | - Lehe Mei
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo Tech University, Ningbo 315100, China
- Jinhua Advanced Research Institute, Jinhua 321019, China
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6
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Tramontina R, Ciancaglini I, Roman EKB, Chacón MG, Corrêa TLR, Dixon N, Bugg TDH, Squina FM. Sustainable biosynthetic pathways to value-added bioproducts from hydroxycinnamic acids. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023:10.1007/s00253-023-12571-8. [PMID: 37212882 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12571-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The biorefinery concept, in which biomass is utilized for the production of fuels and chemicals, emerges as an eco-friendly, cost-effective, and renewable alternative to petrochemical-based production. The hydroxycinnamic acid fraction of lignocellulosic biomass represents an untapped source of aromatic molecules that can be converted to numerous high-value products with industrial applications, including in the flavor and fragrance sector and pharmaceuticals. This review describes several biochemical pathways useful in the development of a biorefinery concept based on the biocatalytic conversion of the hydroxycinnamic acids ferulic, caffeic, and p-coumaric acid into high-value molecules. KEY POINTS: • The phenylpropanoids bioconversion pathways in the context of biorefineries • Description of pathways from hydroxycinnamic acids to high-value compounds • Metabolic engineering and synthetic biology advance hydroxycinnamic acid-based biorefineries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robson Tramontina
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Processos Tecnológicos E Ambientais, Universidade de Sorocaba (UNISO), Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Iara Ciancaglini
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ellen K B Roman
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Micaela G Chacón
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology (MIB), Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Thamy L R Corrêa
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Neil Dixon
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology (MIB), Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Timothy D H Bugg
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Fabio Marcio Squina
- Programa de Processos Tecnológicos E Ambientais, Universidade de Sorocaba (UNISO), Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil.
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7
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Wang H, Wang S, Wang J, Shen X, Feng X, Yuan S, Sun X, Yuan Q. Engineering a Prokaryotic Non-P450 Hydroxylase for 3'-Hydroxylation of Flavonoids. ACS Synth Biol 2022; 11:3865-3873. [PMID: 36321874 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.2c00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Plant-derived cytochrome P450-dependent flavonoid 3'-hydroxylases are the rate-limiting enzymes in flavonoid biosynthesis. In this study, the large component (HpaB) of a prokaryotic 4-hydroxyphenylacetate (4-HPA) 3-hydroxylase was engineered for efficient 3'-hydroxylation of naringenin. First, we selected four HpaBs through database search and phylogenetic analysis and compared their catalytic activities toward 4-HPA and naringenin. HpaB from Rhodococcus opacus B-4 (RoHpaB) showed better preference toward naringenin. To elucidate the underlying mechanism, we analyzed the structural differences of HpaBs through homologous modeling, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulation, and the substrate preference of RoHpaB was mainly attributed to the shorter chain length of loop 212-222 and the larger substrate binding pocket. RoHpaB was further engineered by alanine scanning and structural replacement, and the RoHpaBY215A variant was obtained, whose catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) toward naringenin is 25.3 times higher than that of RoHpaB. In addition, RoHpaBY215A also showed significantly improved activity toward flavonoids apigenin and kaempferol. This work opens the possibility of using engineered HpaB as a versatile hydroxylase to produce functionalized flavonoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Shiyu Wang
- Research Center for Computer-Aided Drug Discovery, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Jia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xiaolin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xudong Feng
- Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Shuguang Yuan
- Research Center for Computer-Aided Drug Discovery, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xinxiao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Qipeng Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
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8
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Charlton SN, Hayes MA. Oxygenating Biocatalysts for Hydroxyl Functionalisation in Drug Discovery and Development. ChemMedChem 2022; 17:e202200115. [PMID: 35385205 PMCID: PMC9323455 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202200115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
C-H oxyfunctionalisation remains a distinct challenge for synthetic organic chemists. Oxygenases and peroxygenases (grouped here as "oxygenating biocatalysts") catalyse the oxidation of a substrate with molecular oxygen or hydrogen peroxide as oxidant. The application of oxygenating biocatalysts in organic synthesis has dramatically increased over the last decade, producing complex compounds with potential uses in the pharmaceutical industry. This review will focus on hydroxyl functionalisation using oxygenating biocatalysts as a tool for drug discovery and development. Established oxygenating biocatalysts, such as cytochrome P450s and flavin-dependent monooxygenases, have widely been adopted for this purpose, but can suffer from low activity, instability or limited substrate scope. Therefore, emerging oxygenating biocatalysts which offer an alternative will also be covered, as well as considering the ways in which these hydroxylation biotransformations can be applied in drug discovery and development, such as late-stage functionalisation (LSF) and in biocatalytic cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sacha N. Charlton
- School of ChemistryUniversity of Bristol, Cantock's CloseBristolBS8 1TSUK
| | - Martin A. Hayes
- Compound Synthesis and ManagementDiscovery SciencesBiopharmaceuticals R&DAstraZenecaGothenburgSweden
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9
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Dippe M, Herrmann S, Pecher P, Funke E, Pietzsch M, Wessjohann L. Engineered bacterial flavin-dependent monooxygenases for the regiospecific hydroxylation of polycyclic phenols. Chembiochem 2022; 23:e202100480. [PMID: 34979058 PMCID: PMC9303722 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
4-Hydroxyphenylacetate 3-hydroxylase (4HPA3H), a flavin-dependent monooxygenase from E. coli that catalyzes the hydroxylation of monophenols to catechols, was modified by rational re-design to convert also more bulky substrates, especially phenolic natural products like phenylpropanoids, flavones or coumarins. Selected amino acid positions in the binding pocket of 4HPA3H were exchanged by residues from the homologous protein from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, yielding variants with improved conversion of spacious substrates such as the flavonoid naringenin or the alkaloid mimetic 2-hydroxycarbazole. Reactions were followed by an adapted Fe(III)-catechol chromogenic assay selective for the products. Especially substitution of the residue Y301 facilitated modulation of substrate specificity: introduction of non-aromatic but hydrophobic (iso)leucine resulted in the preference of the substrate ferulic acid (having a guaiacyl (guajacyl) moiety, part of the vanilloid motif) over unsubstituted monophenols. The in vivo (whole-cell biocatalysts) and in vitro (three-enzyme cascade) transformations of substrates by 4HPA3H and its optimized variants was strictly regiospecific and proceeded without generation of by-products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Dippe
- Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie: Leibniz-Institut fur Pflanzenbiochemie, Bioorganic Chemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120, Halle/Saale, GERMANY
| | - Susann Herrmann
- Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie: Leibniz-Institut fur Pflanzenbiochemie, Bioorganic Chemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120, Halle, GERMANY
| | - Pascal Pecher
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry: Leibniz-Institut fur Pflanzenbiochemie, Bioorganic Chemistry, GERMANY
| | - Evelyn Funke
- Leibniz-Institut fur Pflanzenbiochemie, Bioorganic Chemistry, GERMANY
| | - Markus Pietzsch
- Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg: Martin-Luther-Universitat Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Pharmacy, Weinbergweg 22, D-06120, Halle, GERMANY
| | - Ludger Wessjohann
- Leibniz-Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry, Weinberg 3, 06120, Halle Saale, GERMANY
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10
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Intasian P, Prakinee K, Phintha A, Trisrivirat D, Weeranoppanant N, Wongnate T, Chaiyen P. Enzymes, In Vivo Biocatalysis, and Metabolic Engineering for Enabling a Circular Economy and Sustainability. Chem Rev 2021; 121:10367-10451. [PMID: 34228428 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Since the industrial revolution, the rapid growth and development of global industries have depended largely upon the utilization of coal-derived chemicals, and more recently, the utilization of petroleum-based chemicals. These developments have followed a linear economy model (produce, consume, and dispose). As the world is facing a serious threat from the climate change crisis, a more sustainable solution for manufacturing, i.e., circular economy in which waste from the same or different industries can be used as feedstocks or resources for production offers an attractive industrial/business model. In nature, biological systems, i.e., microorganisms routinely use their enzymes and metabolic pathways to convert organic and inorganic wastes to synthesize biochemicals and energy required for their growth. Therefore, an understanding of how selected enzymes convert biobased feedstocks into special (bio)chemicals serves as an important basis from which to build on for applications in biocatalysis, metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology to enable biobased processes that are greener and cleaner for the environment. This review article highlights the current state of knowledge regarding the enzymatic reactions used in converting biobased wastes (lignocellulosic biomass, sugar, phenolic acid, triglyceride, fatty acid, and glycerol) and greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) into value-added products and discusses the current progress made in their metabolic engineering. The commercial aspects and life cycle assessment of products from enzymatic and metabolic engineering are also discussed. Continued development in the field of metabolic engineering would offer diversified solutions which are sustainable and renewable for manufacturing valuable chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pattarawan Intasian
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Kridsadakorn Prakinee
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Aisaraphon Phintha
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand.,Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Duangthip Trisrivirat
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Nopphon Weeranoppanant
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Burapha University, 169, Long-hard Bangsaen, Saensook, Muang, Chonburi 20131, Thailand
| | - Thanyaporn Wongnate
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand
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11
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Pimviriyakul P, Jaruwat A, Chitnumsub P, Chaiyen P. Structural insights into a flavin-dependent dehalogenase HadA explain catalysis and substrate inhibition via quadruple π-stacking. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:100952. [PMID: 34252455 PMCID: PMC8342789 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
HadA is a flavin-dependent monooxygenase catalyzing hydroxylation plus dehalogenation/denitration, which is useful for biodetoxification and biodetection. In this study, the X-ray structure of wild-type HadA (HadAWT) co-complexed with reduced FAD (FADH–) and 4-nitrophenol (4NP) (HadAWT−FADH–−4NP) was solved at 2.3-Å resolution, providing the first full package (with flavin and substrate bound) structure of a monooxygenase of this type. Residues Arg101, Gln158, Arg161, Thr193, Asp254, Arg233, and Arg439 constitute a flavin-binding pocket, whereas the 4NP-binding pocket contains the aromatic side chain of Phe206, which provides π-π stacking and also is a part of the hydrophobic pocket formed by Phe155, Phe286, Thr449, and Leu457. Based on site-directed mutagenesis and stopped-flow experiments, Thr193, Asp254, and His290 are important for C4a-hydroperoxyflavin formation with His290, also serving as a catalytic base for hydroxylation. We also identified a novel structural motif of quadruple π-stacking (π-π-π-π) provided by two 4NP and two Phe441 from two subunits. This motif promotes 4NP binding in a nonproductive dead-end complex, which prevents C4a-hydroperoxy-FAD formation when HadA is premixed with aromatic substrates. We also solved the structure of the HadAPhe441Val−FADH–−4NP complex at 2.3-Å resolution. Although 4NP can still bind to this variant, the quadruple π-stacking motif was disrupted. All HadAPhe441 variants lack substrate inhibition behavior, confirming that quadruple π-stacking is a main cause of dead-end complex formation. Moreover, the activities of these HadAPhe441 variants were improved by ⁓20%, suggesting that insights gained from the flavin-dependent monooxygenases illustrated here should be useful for future improvement of HadA’s biocatalytic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panu Pimviriyakul
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Aritsara Jaruwat
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Pathumthani, Thailand
| | - Penchit Chitnumsub
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Pathumthani, Thailand.
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, Thailand.
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12
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Abstract
Many flavin-dependent phenolic hydroxylases (monooxygenases) have been extensively investigated. Their crystal structures and reaction mechanisms are well understood. These enzymes belong to groups A and D of the flavin-dependent monooxygenases and can be classified as single-component and two-component flavin-dependent monooxygenases. The insertion of molecular oxygen into the substrates catalyzed by these enzymes is beneficial for modifying the biological properties of phenolic compounds and their derivatives. This chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the structural features of single-component and two-component flavin-dependent phenolic hydroxylases. The reaction mechanisms of selected enzymes, including 3-hydroxy-benzoate 4-hydroxylase (PHBH) and 3-hydroxy-benzoate 6-hydroxylase as representatives of single-component enzymes and 3-hydroxyphenylacetate 4-hydroxylase (HPAH) as a representative of two-component enzymes, are discussed in detail. This chapter comprises the following four main parts: general reaction, structures, reaction mechanisms, and enzyme engineering for biocatalytic applications. Enzymes belonging to the same group catalyze similar reactions but have different unique structural features to control their reactivity to substrates and the formation and stabilization of C4a-hydroperoxyflavin. Protein engineering has been employed to improve the ability to use these enzymes to synthesize valuable compounds. A thorough understanding of the structural and mechanistic features controlling enzyme reactivity is useful for enzyme redesign and enzyme engineering for future biocatalytic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pirom Chenprakhon
- Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
| | - Panu Pimviriyakul
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Technology, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Chanakan Tongsook
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong, Thailand
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13
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Chakrabarty S, Wang Y, Perkins JC, Narayan ARH. Scalable biocatalytic C-H oxyfunctionalization reactions. Chem Soc Rev 2020; 49:8137-8155. [PMID: 32701110 PMCID: PMC8177087 DOI: 10.1039/d0cs00440e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Catalytic C-H oxyfunctionalization reactions have garnered significant attention in recent years with their ability to streamline synthetic routes toward complex molecules. Consequently, there have been significant strides in the design and development of catalysts that enable diversification through C-H functionalization reactions. Enzymatic C-H oxygenation reactions are often complementary to small molecule based synthetic approaches, providing a powerful tool when deployable on preparative-scale. This review highlights key advances in scalable biocatalytic C-H oxyfunctionalization reactions developed within the past decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Chakrabarty
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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14
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Abstract
Flavin-dependent enzymes catalyze a wide variety of biological reactions that are important for all types of living organisms. Knowledge gained from studying the chemistry and biological functions of flavins and flavin-dependent enzymes has continuously made significant contributions to the development of the fields of enzymology and metabolism from the 1970s until now. The enzymes have been applied in various applications such as use as biocatalysts in synthetic processes for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries or in the biodetoxification and bioremediation of toxic or unwanted compounds, and as biosensors or biodetection tools for quantifying various agents of interest. Many flavin-dependent enzymes are also prime targets for drug development. Based on their reaction mechanisms, they can be classified into five categories: oxidase, dehydrogenase, monooxygenase, reductase, and redox neutral flavin-dependent enzymes. In this chapter, the general properties of flavin-dependent enzymes and the nature of their chemical reactions are discussed, along with their practical applications.
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15
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16
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Abstract
Flavoenzymes are broadly employed as biocatalysts for a large variety of reactions, owing to the chemical versatility of the flavin cofactor. Oxidases set aside, many flavoenzymes require a source of electrons in form of the biological reductant nicotinamide NAD(P)H in order to initiate catalysis via the reduced flavin. Chemists can take advantage of the reactivity of reduced flavins with oxygen to carry out monooxygenation reactions, while the reduced flavin can also be used for formal hydrogenation reactions. The main advantage of these reactions compared to chemical approaches is the frequent regio-, chemo- and stereo-selectivity of the biocatalysts, which allows the synthesis of chiral molecules in optically active form. This chapter provides an overview of the variety of biocatalytic processes that have been developed with flavoenzymes, with a particular focus on nicotinamide-dependent enzymes. The diversity of molecules obtained is highlighted and in several cases, strategies that allow control of the stereochemical outcome of the reactions are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Hall
- Department of Chemistry, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
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17
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Kim H, Kim S, Kim D, Yoon SH. A single amino acid substitution in aromatic hydroxylase (HpaB) of Escherichia coli alters substrate specificity of the structural isomers of hydroxyphenylacetate. BMC Microbiol 2020; 20:109. [PMID: 32375644 PMCID: PMC7201708 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-020-01798-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A broad range of aromatic compounds can be degraded by enteric bacteria, and hydroxyphenylacetic acid (HPA) degrading bacteria are the most widespread. Majority of Escherichia coli strains can use both the structural isomers of HPA, 3HPA and 4HPA, as the sole carbon source, which are catabolized by the same pathway whose associated enzymes are encoded by hpa gene cluster. Previously, we observed that E. coli B REL606 grew only on 4HPA, while E. coli B BL21(DE3) grew on 3HPA as well as 4HPA. RESULTS In this study, we report that a single amino acid in 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-hydroxylase (HpaB) of E. coli determines the substrate specificity of HPA isomers. Alignment of protein sequences encoded in hpa gene clusters of BL21(DE3) and REL606 showed that there was a difference of only one amino acid (position 379 in HpaB) between the two, viz., Arg in BL21(DE3) and Cys in REL606. REL606 cells expressing HpaB having Arg379 could grow on 3HPA, whereas those expressing HpaB with Gly379 or Ser379 could not. Structural analysis suggested that the amino acid residue at position 379 of HpaB is located not in the active site, but in the vicinity of the 4HPA binding site, and that it plays an important role in mediating the entrance and stable binding of substrates to the active site. CONCLUSIONS The arginine residue at position 379 of HpaB is critical for 3HPA recognition. Information regarding the effect of amino acid residues on the substrate specificity of structural isomers can facilitate in designing hydoxylases with high catalytic efficiency and versatility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanseol Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sinyeon Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Dohyeon Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Ho Yoon
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea.
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18
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Phonbuppha J, Tinikul R, Wongnate T, Intasian P, Hollmann F, Paul CE, Chaiyen P. A Minimized Chemoenzymatic Cascade for Bacterial Luciferase in Bioreporter Applications. Chembiochem 2020; 21:2073-2079. [PMID: 32187433 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial luciferase (Lux) catalyzes a bioluminescence reaction by using long-chain aldehyde, reduced flavin and molecular oxygen as substrates. The reaction can be applied in reporter gene systems for biomolecular detection in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Because reduced flavin is unstable under aerobic conditions, another enzyme, flavin reductase, is needed to supply reduced flavin to the Lux-catalyzed reaction. To create a minimized cascade for Lux that would have greater ease of use, a chemoenzymatic reaction with a biomimetic nicotinamide (BNAH) was used in place of the flavin reductase reaction in the Lux system. The results showed that the minimized cascade reaction can be applied to monitor bioluminescence of the Lux reporter in eukaryotic cells effectively, and that it can achieve higher efficiencies than the system with flavin reductase. This development is useful for future applications as high-throughput detection tools for drug screening applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jittima Phonbuppha
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1, Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Ruchanok Tinikul
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272 Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Thanyaporn Wongnate
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1, Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Pattarawan Intasian
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1, Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Frank Hollmann
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ, Delft (The, Netherlands
| | - Caroline E Paul
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ, Delft (The, Netherlands
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1, Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand.,Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272 Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
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19
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Maenpuen S, Pongsupasa V, Pensook W, Anuwan P, Kraivisitkul N, Pinthong C, Phonbuppha J, Luanloet T, Wijma HJ, Fraaije MW, Lawan N, Chaiyen P, Wongnate T. Creating Flavin Reductase Variants with Thermostable and Solvent-Tolerant Properties by Rational-Design Engineering. Chembiochem 2020; 21:1481-1491. [PMID: 31886941 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
We have employed computational approaches-FireProt and FRESCO-to predict thermostable variants of the reductase component (C1 ) of (4-hydroxyphenyl)acetate 3-hydroxylase. With the additional aid of experimental results, two C1 variants, A166L and A58P, were identified as thermotolerant enzymes, with thermostability improvements of 2.6-5.6 °C and increased catalytic efficiency of 2- to 3.5-fold. After heat treatment at 45 °C, both of the thermostable C1 variants remain active and generate reduced flavin mononucleotide (FMNH- ) for reactions catalyzed by bacterial luciferase and by the monooxygenase C2 more efficiently than the wild type (WT). In addition to thermotolerance, the A166L and A58P variants also exhibited solvent tolerance. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations (6 ns) at 300-500 K indicated that mutation of A166 to L and of A58 to P resulted in structural changes with increased stabilization of hydrophobic interactions, and thus in improved thermostability. Our findings demonstrated that improvements in the thermostability of C1 enzyme can lead to broad-spectrum uses of C1 as a redox biocatalyst for future industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somchart Maenpuen
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, 169 Long-Hard Bangsaen Road, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand
| | - Vinutsada Pongsupasa
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Wiranee Pensook
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, 169 Long-Hard Bangsaen Road, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand
| | - Piyanuch Anuwan
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | | | - Chatchadaporn Pinthong
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Srinakharinwirot University, 114 Sukhumvit 23 Road, Bangkok, 10110, Thailand
| | - Jittima Phonbuppha
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Thikumporn Luanloet
- Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272 Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Hein J Wijma
- Molecular Enzymology Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Narin Lawan
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, 239 Huaykaew Road, Suthep, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand.,Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272 Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Thanyaporn Wongnate
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
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20
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Pitsawong W, Chenprakhon P, Dhammaraj T, Medhanavyn D, Sucharitakul J, Tongsook C, van Berkel WJH, Chaiyen P, Miller AF. Tuning of p Ka values activates substrates in flavin-dependent aromatic hydroxylases. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:3965-3981. [PMID: 32014994 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxylation of substituted phenols by flavin-dependent monooxygenases is the first step of their biotransformation in various microorganisms. The reaction is thought to proceed via electrophilic aromatic substitution, catalyzed by enzymatic deprotonation of substrate, in single-component hydroxylases that use flavin as a cofactor (group A). However, two-component hydroxylases (group D), which use reduced flavin as a co-substrate, are less amenable to spectroscopic investigation. Herein, we employed 19F NMR in conjunction with fluorinated substrate analogs to directly measure pKa values and to monitor protein events in hydroxylase active sites. We found that the single-component monooxygenase 3-hydroxybenzoate 6-hydroxylase (3HB6H) depresses the pKa of the bound substrate analog 4-fluoro-3-hydroxybenzoate (4F3HB) by 1.6 pH units, consistent with previously proposed mechanisms. 19F NMR was applied anaerobically to the two-component monooxygenase 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-hydroxylase (HPAH), revealing depression of the pKa of 3-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenylacetate by 2.5 pH units upon binding to the C2 component of HPAH. 19F NMR also revealed a pKa of 8.7 ± 0.05 that we attributed to an active-site residue involved in deprotonating bound substrate, and assigned to His-120 based on studies of protein variants. Thus, in both types of hydroxylases, we confirmed that binding favors the phenolate form of substrate. The 9 and 14 kJ/mol magnitudes of the effects for 3HB6H and HPAH-C2, respectively, are consistent with pKa tuning by one or more H-bonding interactions. Our implementation of 19F NMR in anaerobic samples is applicable to other two-component flavin-dependent hydroxylases and promises to expand our understanding of their catalytic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warintra Pitsawong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0055
| | - Pirom Chenprakhon
- Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Taweesak Dhammaraj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahasarakham University, Maha Sarakham 44150, Thailand
| | - Dheeradhach Medhanavyn
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Jeerus Sucharitakul
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
| | - Chanakan Tongsook
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand
| | - Willem J H van Berkel
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry, Wageningen University and Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology, Wangchan Valley, 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Anne-Frances Miller
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0055
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21
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Chenprakhon P, Wongnate T, Chaiyen P. Monooxygenation of aromatic compounds by flavin-dependent monooxygenases. Protein Sci 2020; 28:8-29. [PMID: 30311986 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Many flavoenzymes catalyze hydroxylation of aromatic compounds especially phenolic compounds have been isolated and characterized. These enzymes can be classified as either single-component or two-component flavin-dependent hydroxylases (monooxygenases). The hydroxylation reactions catalyzed by the enzymes in this group are useful for modifying the biological properties of phenolic compounds. This review aims to provide an in-depth discussion of the current mechanistic understanding of representative flavin-dependent monooxygenases including 3-hydroxy-benzoate 4-hydroxylase (PHBH, a single-component hydroxylase), 3-hydroxyphenylacetate 4-hydroxylase (HPAH, a two-component hydroxylase), and other monooxygenases which catalyze reactions in addition to hydroxylation, including 2-methyl-3-hydroxypyridine-5-carboxylate oxygenase (MHPCO, a single-component enzyme that catalyzes aromatic-ring cleavage), and HadA monooxygenase (a two-component enzyme that catalyzes additional group elimination reaction). These enzymes have different unique structural features which dictate their reactivity toward various substrates and influence their ability to stabilize flavin intermediates such as C4a-hydroperoxyflavin. Understanding the key catalytic residues and the active site environments important for governing enzyme reactivity will undoubtedly facilitate future work in enzyme engineering or enzyme redesign for the development of biocatalytic methods for the synthesis of valuable compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pirom Chenprakhon
- Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Thanyaporn Wongnate
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, 21210, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, 21210, Thailand.,Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 14000, Thailand
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22
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Deng Y, Faivre B, Back O, Lombard M, Pecqueur L, Fontecave M. Structural and Functional Characterization of 4-Hydroxyphenylacetate 3-Hydroxylase from Escherichia coli. Chembiochem 2020; 21:163-170. [PMID: 31155821 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The hydroxylation of phenols into polyphenols, which are valuable chemicals and pharmaceutical products, is a challenging reaction. The search for green synthetic processes has led to considering microorganisms and pure hydroxylases as catalysts for phenol hydroxylation. Herein, we report the structural and functional characterization of the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-monooxygenase from Escherichia coli, named HpaB. It is shown that this enzyme enjoys a relatively broad substrate specificity, which allows the conversion of a number of non-natural phenolic compounds, such as tyrosol, hydroxymandelic acid, coumaric acid, hydroxybenzoic acid and its methyl ester, and phenol, into the corresponding catechols. The reaction can be performed by using a simple chemical assay based on formate as the electron donor and the organometallic complex [Rh(bpy)Cp*(H2 O)]2+ (Cp*: 1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylcyclopentadiene, bpy: 2,2'-bipyridyl) as the catalyst for FAD reduction. The availability of a crystal structure of HpaB in complex with FAD at 1.8 Å resolution opens up the possibility of the rational tuning of the substrate specificity and activity of this interesting class of phenol hydroxylases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Deng
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Processus Biologiques, Collège de France, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, UMR 8229, PSL Research University, 11 place Marcelin Berthelot, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Faivre
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Processus Biologiques, Collège de France, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, UMR 8229, PSL Research University, 11 place Marcelin Berthelot, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Back
- Solvay, Research and Innovation Center of Lyon, 85, Avenue des frères Perret, 69190, Saint-Fons, France
| | - Murielle Lombard
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Processus Biologiques, Collège de France, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, UMR 8229, PSL Research University, 11 place Marcelin Berthelot, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Ludovic Pecqueur
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Processus Biologiques, Collège de France, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, UMR 8229, PSL Research University, 11 place Marcelin Berthelot, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Marc Fontecave
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Processus Biologiques, Collège de France, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, UMR 8229, PSL Research University, 11 place Marcelin Berthelot, 75005, Paris, France
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23
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Skrajnowska D, Bobrowska-Korczak B. Role of Zinc in Immune System and Anti-Cancer Defense Mechanisms. Nutrients 2019; 11:E2273. [PMID: 31546724 PMCID: PMC6835436 DOI: 10.3390/nu11102273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The human body cannot store zinc reserves, so a deficiency can arise relatively quickly, e.g., through an improper diet. Severe zinc deficiency is rare, but mild deficiencies are common around the world. Many epidemiological studies have shown a relationship between the zinc content in the diet and the risk of cancer. The anti-cancer effect of zinc is most often associated with its antioxidant properties. However, this is just one of many possibilities, including the influence of zinc on the immune system, transcription factors, cell differentiation and proliferation, DNA and RNA synthesis and repair, enzyme activation or inhibition, the regulation of cellular signaling, and the stabilization of the cell structure and membranes. This study presents selected issues regarding the current knowledge of anti-cancer mechanisms involving this element.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Skrajnowska
- Department of Bromatology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.
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24
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Sawasdee K, Sucharitakul J, Dhammaraj T, Niamsiri N, Chaiyen P, Prapainop K. Encapsulation of the reductase component of p-hydroxyphenylacetate hydroxylase in poly(lactide- co-glycolide) nanoparticles by three different emulsification techniques. IET Nanobiotechnol 2018; 12:423-428. [PMID: 29768224 PMCID: PMC8676365 DOI: 10.1049/iet-nbt.2017.0189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
p-Hydroxyphenylacetate 3-hydroxylase component 1 (C1) is a useful enzyme for generating reduced flavin and NAD+ intermediates. In this study, poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were used to encapsulate the C1 (PLGA-C1 NPs). Enzymatic activity, stability, and reusability of PLGA-C1 NPs prepared using three different methods [oil in water (o/w), water in oil in water (w/o/w), and solid in oil in water (s/o/w)] were compared. The s/o/w provided the optimal conditions for encapsulation of C1(PLGA-C1,s NPs), giving the highest enzyme activity, stability, and reusability. The s/o/w method improves enzyme activity ∼11 and 9-fold compared to w/o/w (PLGA-C1,w NPs) and o/w (PLGA-C1,o NPs). In addition, s/o/w prepared PLGA-C1,s NPs could be reused 14 times with nearly 50% activity remaining, a much higher reusability compared to PLGA-C1,o NPs and PLGA-C1,w NPs. These nanovesicles were successfully utilised to generate reduced flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and supply this cofactor to a hydroxylase enzyme that has application for synthesising anti-inflammatory compounds. Therefore, this recycling biocatalyst prepared using the s/o/w method is effective and has the potential for use in combination with other enzymes that require reduced FMN. Application of PLGA-C1,s NPs may be possible in additional biocatalytic processes for chemical or biochemical production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komkrich Sawasdee
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jeerus Sucharitakul
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Nuttawee Niamsiri
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- Department of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, School of Biomolecular Science & Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Kanlaya Prapainop
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Tinikul R, Chenprakhon P, Maenpuen S, Chaiyen P. Biotransformation of Plant-Derived Phenolic Acids. Biotechnol J 2018; 13:e1700632. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201700632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 12/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruchanok Tinikul
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology; Faculty of Science; Mahidol University; Bangkok 10400 Thailand
| | - Pirom Chenprakhon
- Institute for Innovative Learning; Mahidol University; Nakhon Pathom 73170 Thailand
| | - Somchart Maenpuen
- Department of Biochemistry; Faculty of Science; Burapha University; Chonburi 20131 Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- Department of Biomolecular Science and Engineering; School of Biomolecular Science & Engineering; Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC); Wangchan Valley Rayong 21210 Thailand
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Chenprakhon P, Dhammaraj T, Chantiwas R, Chaiyen P. Hydroxylation of 4-hydroxyphenylethylamine derivatives by R263 variants of the oxygenase component of p -hydroxyphenylacetate-3-hydroxylase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2017; 620:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2017] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Pimviriyakul P, Thotsaporn K, Sucharitakul J, Chaiyen P. Kinetic Mechanism of the Dechlorinating Flavin-dependent Monooxygenase HadA. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:4818-4832. [PMID: 28159841 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.774448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of chlorophenols (CPs) in the environment, due to their wide use as agrochemicals, has become a serious environmental problem. These organic halides can be degraded by aerobic microorganisms, where the initial steps of various biodegradation pathways include an oxidative dechlorinating process in which chloride is replaced by a hydroxyl substituent. Harnessing these dechlorinating processes could provide an opportunity for environmental remediation, but detailed catalytic mechanisms for these enzymes are not yet known. To close this gap, we now report transient kinetics and product analysis of the dechlorinating flavin-dependent monooxygenase, HadA, from the aerobic organism Ralstonia pickettii DTP0602, identifying several mechanistic properties that differ from other enzymes in the same class. We first overexpressed and purified HadA to homogeneity. Analyses of the products from single and multiple turnover reactions demonstrated that HadA prefers 4-CP and 2-CP over CPs with multiple substituents. Stopped-flow and rapid-quench flow experiments of HadA with 4-CP show the involvement of specific intermediates (C4a-hydroperoxy-FAD and C4a-hydroxy-FAD) in the reaction, define rate constants and the order of substrate binding, and demonstrate that the hydroxylation step occurs prior to chloride elimination. The data also identify the non-productive and productive paths of the HadA reactions and demonstrate that product formation is the rate-limiting step. This is the first elucidation of the kinetic mechanism of a two-component flavin-dependent monooxygenase that can catalyze oxidative dechlorination of various CPs, and as such it will serve as the basis for future investigation of enzyme variants that will be useful for applications in detoxifying chemicals hazardous to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panu Pimviriyakul
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400 and
| | - Kittisak Thotsaporn
- the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
| | - Jeerus Sucharitakul
- the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400 and
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29
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Pornsuwan S, Maenpuen S, Kamutira P, Watthaisong P, Thotsaporn K, Tongsook C, Juttulapa M, Nijvipakul S, Chaiyen P. 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetate 2,3-dioxygenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa: An Fe(II)-containing enzyme with fast turnover. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0171135. [PMID: 28158217 PMCID: PMC5291488 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetate (DHPA) dioxygenase (DHPAO) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PaDHPAO) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. As the enzyme lost activity over time, a protocol to reactivate and conserve PaDHPAO activity has been developed. Addition of Fe(II), DTT and ascorbic acid or ROS scavenging enzymes (catalase or superoxide dismutase) was required to preserve enzyme stability. Metal content and activity analyses indicated that PaDHPAO uses Fe(II) as a metal cofactor. NMR analysis of the reaction product indicated that PaDHPAO catalyzes the 2,3-extradiol ring-cleavage of DHPA to form 5-carboxymethyl-2-hydroxymuconate semialdehyde (CHMS) which has a molar absorptivity of 32.23 mM-1cm-1 at 380 nm and pH 7.5. Steady-state kinetics under air-saturated conditions at 25°C and pH 7.5 showed a Km for DHPA of 58 ± 8 μM and a kcat of 64 s-1, indicating that the turnover of PaDHPAO is relatively fast compared to other DHPAOs. The pH-rate profile of the PaDHPAO reaction shows a bell-shaped plot that exhibits a maximum activity at pH 7.5 with two pKa values of 6.5 ± 0.1 and 8.9 ± 0.1. Study of the effect of temperature on PaDHPAO activity indicated that the enzyme activity increases as temperature increases up to 55°C. The Arrhenius plot of ln(k’cat) versus the reciprocal of the absolute temperature shows two correlations with a transition temperature at 35°C. Two activation energy values (Ea) above and below the transition temperature were calculated as 42 and 14 kJ/mol, respectively. The data imply that the rate determining steps of the PaDHPAO reaction at temperatures above and below 35°C may be different. Sequence similarity network analysis indicated that PaDHPAO belongs to the enzyme clusters that are largely unexplored. As PaDHPAO has a high turnover number compared to most of the enzymes previously reported, understanding its biochemical and biophysical properties should be useful for future applications in biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraya Pornsuwan
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Somchart Maenpuen
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand
| | - Philaiwarong Kamutira
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand
| | - Pratchaya Watthaisong
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kittisak Thotsaporn
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chanakan Tongsook
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Maneerat Juttulapa
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sarayut Nijvipakul
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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Thotsaporn K, Tinikul R, Maenpuen S, Phonbuppha J, Watthaisong P, Chenprakhon P, Chaiyen P. Enzymes in the p-hydroxyphenylacetate degradation pathway of Acinetobacter baumannii. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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31
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Dhammaraj T, Pinthong C, Visitsatthawong S, Tongsook C, Surawatanawong P, Chaiyen P. A Single-Site Mutation at Ser146 Expands the Reactivity of the Oxygenase Component of p-Hydroxyphenylacetate 3-Hydroxylase. ACS Chem Biol 2016; 11:2889-2896. [PMID: 27541707 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b00402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The oxygenase component (C2) of p-hydroxyphenylacetate (4-HPA) 3-hydroxylase (HPAH) from Acinetobacter baumannii catalyzes the hydroxylation of various phenolic acids. In this report, we found that substitution of a residue close to the phenolic group binding site to yield the S146A variant resulted in an enzyme that is more effective than the wild-type in catalyzing the hydroxylation of 4-aminophenylacetate (4-APA). Product yields for both wild-type and S146A enzymes are better at lower pH values. Multiple turnover reactions of the wild-type and S146A enzymes indicate that both enzymes first hydroxylate 3-APA to give 3-hydroxy-4-aminophenylacetate (3-OH-4-APA), which is further hydroxylated to give 3,5-dihydroxy-4-aminophenylacetate, similar to the reaction of C2 with 4-HPA. Stopped-flow experiments showed that 4-APA can only bind to the wild-type enzyme at pH 6.0 and not at pH 9.0, while it can bind to S146A under both pH conditions. Rapid-quench flow results indicate that the wild-type enzyme has low reactivity toward 4-APA hydroxylation, with a hydroxylation rate constant (kOH) for 4-APA of 0.028 s-1 compared to 17 s-1 for 4-HPA, the native substrate. In contrast, for S146A, the hydroxylation rate constants for both substrates are very similar (2.6 s-1 for 4-HPA versus 2.5 s-1 for 4-APA). These data indicate that Ser146 is a key catalytic residue involved in optimizing C2 reactivity toward a phenolic compound. Removing this hydroxyl group expands C2 activity toward a non-natural aniline substrate. This understanding should be helpful for future rational engineering of other two-component flavin-dependent monooxygenases that have this conserved Ser residue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taweesak Dhammaraj
- Department
of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Chatchadaporn Pinthong
- Department
of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- Institute
for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Surawit Visitsatthawong
- Department
of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Chanakan Tongsook
- Department
of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Panida Surawatanawong
- Department
of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- Department
of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
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