1
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Yamaguchi K, Nakagawa Y, Li C, Yabushita M, Tomishige K. Utilization of Ni as a Non-Noble-Metal Co-catalyst for Ceria-Supported Rhenium Oxide in Combination of Deoxydehydration and Hydrogenation of Vicinal Diols. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c03042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Yamaguchi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi980-8579, Japan
| | - Yoshinao Nakagawa
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi980-8579, Japan
- Research Center for Rare Metal and Green Innovation, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi980-0845, Japan
| | - Congcong Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi980-8579, Japan
| | - Mizuho Yabushita
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi980-8579, Japan
| | - Keiichi Tomishige
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi980-8579, Japan
- Research Center for Rare Metal and Green Innovation, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi980-0845, Japan
- Advanced Institute for Materials Research (WPI-AIMR), Tohoku University, Katahira 2-1-1, Aoba-ku, Sendai980-8577, Japan
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2
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Yamaguchi K, Cao J, Betchaku M, Nakagawa Y, Tamura M, Nakayama A, Yabushita M, Tomishige K. Deoxydehydration of Biomass-Derived Polyols Over Silver-Modified Ceria-Supported Rhenium Catalyst with Molecular Hydrogen. CHEMSUSCHEM 2022; 15:e202102663. [PMID: 35261197 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202102663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Olefin production from polyols via deoxydehydration (DODH) was carried out over Ag-modified CeO2 -supported heterogeneous Re catalysts with H2 as a reducing agent. Both high DODH activity and low hydrogenation ability for C=C bonds were observed in the reaction of erythritol, giving a 1,3-butadiene yield of up to 90 % under "solvent-free" conditions. This catalyst is applicable to other substrates such as methyl glycosides (methyl α-fucopyranoside: 91 % yield of DODH product; methyl β-ribofuranoside: 88 % yield), which were difficult to be converted to the DODH products over the DODH catalysts reported previously. ReOx -Ag/CeO2 was reused 3 times without a decrease of activity or selectivity after calcination as regeneration. Although the transmission electron microscopy energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray absorption fine structure analyses showed that Re species were highly dispersed and Ag was present as metal particles with various sizes from well-dispersed species (<1 nm) to around 5 nm particles, the catalysts prepared from size-controlled Ag nanoparticles showed similar performance, indicating that the catalytic performance is insensitive to the Ag particle size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Yamaguchi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Ji Cao
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Mii Betchaku
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Yoshinao Nakagawa
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
- Research Center for Rare Metal and Green Innovation, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-0845, Japan
| | - Masazumi Tamura
- Research Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan
| | - Akira Nakayama
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Mizuho Yabushita
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Keiichi Tomishige
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-07, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
- Research Center for Rare Metal and Green Innovation, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-0845, Japan
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3
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Hacatrjan S, Liu L, Gan J, Nakagawa Y, Cao J, Yabushita M, Tamura M, Tomishige K. Titania-supported molybdenum oxide combined with Au nanoparticles as hydrogen-driven deoxydehydration catalyst of diol compounds. Catal Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d1cy02144c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A heterogenous catalyst for deoxydehydration (DODH) reaction was developed using less expensive Mo than Re as the active center. Combination of Mo with anatase-rich TiO2 and Au as the support...
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4
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Jentoft FC. Transition metal-catalyzed deoxydehydration: missing pieces of the puzzle. Catal Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d1cy02083h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Deoxydehydration (DODH) is a transformation that converts a vicinal diol into an olefin with the help of a sacrificial reductant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friederike C. Jentoft
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 686 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003-9303, USA
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5
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Cao J, Tamura M, Hosaka R, Nakayama A, Hasegawa JY, Nakagawa Y, Tomishige K. Mechanistic Study on Deoxydehydration and Hydrogenation of Methyl Glycosides to Dideoxy Sugars over a ReO x–Pd/CeO 2 Catalyst. ACS Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c02309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ji Cao
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Masazumi Tamura
- Research Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Ryu Hosaka
- Institute for Catalysis, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Akira Nakayama
- Institute for Catalysis, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Jun-ya Hasegawa
- Institute for Catalysis, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Yoshinao Nakagawa
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Keiichi Tomishige
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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6
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Lei L, Wang Y, Zhang Z, An J, Wang F. Transformations of Biomass, Its Derivatives, and Downstream Chemicals over Ceria Catalysts. ACS Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c01900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yehong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhixin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jinghua An
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People’s Republic of China
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7
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Dutta S. Hydro(deoxygenation) Reaction Network of Lignocellulosic Oxygenates. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:2894-2915. [PMID: 32134557 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202000247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) is a key transformation step to convert lignocellulosic oxygenates into drop-in and functional high-value hydrocarbons through controlled oxygen removal. Nevertheless, the mechanistic insights of HDO chemistry have been scarcely investigated as opposed to a significant extent of hydrodesulfurization chemistry. Current requirements emphasize certain underexplored events of HDO of oxygenates, which include 1) interactions of oxygenates of varied molecular size with active sites of the catalysts, 2) determining the conformation of oxygenates on the active site at the point of interaction, and 3) effects of oxygen contents of oxygenates on the reaction rate of HDO. It is realized that the molecular interactions of oxygenates with the surface of the catalyst dominates the degree and nature of deoxygenation to derive products with desired selectivity by overcoming complex separation processes in a biorefinery. Those oxygenates with high carbon numbers (>C10), multiple furan rings, and branched architectures are even more complex to understand. This article aims to focus on concise mechanistic analysis of biorefinery oxygenates (C10-35 ) for their deoxygenation processes, with a special emphasis on their interactions with active sites in a complex chemical environment. This article also addresses differentiation of the mode of interactions based on the molecular size of oxygenates. Deoxygenation processes coupled with or without ring opening of furan-based oxygenates and site-substrate cooperativity dictate the formation of diverse value-added products. Oxygen removal has been the key step for microbial deoxygenation by the use of oxygen-removing decarbonylase enzymes. However, challenges to obtain branched and long-chain hydrocarbons remain, which require special attention, including the invention of newer techniques to upgrade the process for combined depolymerization-HDO from real biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saikat Dutta
- Molecular Catalysis & Energy (MCR) Laboratory, Amity Institute Click Chemistry Research & Studies (AICCRS), Amity University, Sector 125, Noida, 201303, India
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8
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Tomishige K, Nakagawa Y, Tamura M. Taming heterogeneous rhenium catalysis for the production of biomass-derived chemicals. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2019.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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9
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Tamura M, Nakagawa Y, Tomishige K. Reduction of sugar derivatives to valuable chemicals: utilization of asymmetric carbons. Catal Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cy00654h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress on non-furfural routes from sugar derivatives to valuable chemicals including chiral chemicals was reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masazumi Tamura
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai 980-8579
- Japan
| | - Yoshinao Nakagawa
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai 980-8579
- Japan
| | - Keiichi Tomishige
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai 980-8579
- Japan
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10
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Catalytic valorization of biomass and bioplatforms to chemicals through deoxygenation. ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.acat.2020.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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11
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Siu TC, Silva I, Lunn MJ, John A. Influence of the pendant arm in deoxydehydration catalyzed by dioxomolybdenum complexes supported by amine bisphenolate ligands. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj02151b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Molybdenum complexes devoid of a strongly coordinating pendant arm result in enhanced catalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy C. Siu
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department
- California State Polytechnic University
- Pomona
- USA
| | - Israel Silva
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department
- California State Polytechnic University
- Pomona
- USA
| | - Maiko J. Lunn
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department
- California State Polytechnic University
- Pomona
- USA
| | - Alex John
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department
- California State Polytechnic University
- Pomona
- USA
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12
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Wang T, Nakagawa Y, Tamura M, Okumura K, Tomishige K. Tungsten–zirconia-supported rhenium catalyst combined with a deoxydehydration catalyst for the one-pot synthesis of 1,4-butanediol from 1,4-anhydroerythritol. REACT CHEM ENG 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0re00085j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Biomass-derived 1,4-anhydroerythritol is reduced to 1,4-butanediol over a reusable mixture of heterogeneous catalysts, ReOx–Au/CeO2 and ReOx/WO3–ZrO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianmiao Wang
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Yoshinao Nakagawa
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Masazumi Tamura
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Kazu Okumura
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- Faculty of Engineering
- Kogakuin University
- Tokyo 192-0015
- Japan
| | - Keiichi Tomishige
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
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13
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Donnelly LJ, Thomas SP, Love JB. Recent Advances in the Deoxydehydration of Vicinal Diols and Polyols. Chem Asian J 2019; 14:3782-3790. [PMID: 31573149 DOI: 10.1002/asia.201901274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Deoxydehydration (DODH) is one of the most promising tools to reduce the oxygen content of biomass (sugars and polyols) and provide analogues of platform chemicals that are derived from fossil resources. This reaction converts a vicinal diol into an alkene and is typically catalyzed by high-oxidation-state metal-oxo compounds in the presence of a stoichiometric reductant, with examples of both homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. This minireview will highlight the developments in this field over the past 5 years and focus on efforts to solve the problems that currently prevent DODH being performed on a commercial scale, including the nature of the reductant, substrate scope and selectivity, and catalyst recovery and expense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam J Donnelly
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FJ, UK
| | - Stephen P Thomas
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FJ, UK
| | - Jason B Love
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FJ, UK
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14
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Wang T, Tamura M, Nakagawa Y, Tomishige K. Preparation of Highly Active Monometallic Rhenium Catalysts for Selective Synthesis of 1,4-Butanediol from 1,4-Anhydroerythritol. CHEMSUSCHEM 2019; 12:3615-3626. [PMID: 31134740 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201900900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
1,4-Butanediol can be produced from 1,4-anhydroerythritol through the co-catalysis of monometallic mixed catalysts (ReOx /CeO2 +ReOx /C) in the one-pot reduction with H2 . The highest yield of 1,4-butanediol was over 80 %, which is similar to the value obtained over ReOx -Au/CeO2 +ReOx /C catalysts. Mixed catalysts of CeO2 +ReOx /C showed almost the same performance, giving 89 % yield of 1,4-butanediol. The reactivity trends of possible intermediates suggest that the reaction mechanism over ReOx /CeO2 +ReOx /C is similar to that over ReOx -Au/CeO2 +ReOx /C: deoxydehydration (DODH) of 1,4-anhydroerythritol to 2,5-dihydrofuran over ReOx species on the CeO2 support with the promotion of H2 activation by ReOx /C, isomerization of 2,5-dihydrofuran to 2,3-dihydrofuran catalyzed by ReOx on the C support, hydration of 2,3-dihydrofuran catalyzed by C, and hydrogenation to 1,4-butanediol catalyzed by ReOx /C. The reaction order of conversion of 1,4-anhydroerythritol with respect to H2 pressure is almost zero and this indicates that the rate-determining step is the formation of 2,5-dihydrofuran from the coordinated substrate with reduced Re in the DODH step. The activity of ReOx /CeO2 +ReOx /C is higher than that of ReOx -Au/CeO2 +ReOx /C, which is probably related to the reducibility of ReOx /C and the mobility of the Re species between the supports. High-valent Re species such as Re7+ on the CeO2 and C supports are mobile in the solvent; however, low-valent Re species, including metallic Re species, have much lower mobility. Metallic Re and cationic low-valent Re species with high reducibility and low mobility can be present on the carbon support as a trigger for H2 activation and promoter of the reduction of Re species on CeO2 . The presence of noble metals such as Au can enhance the reducibility through the activation of H2 molecules on the noble metal and the formation of spilt-over hydrogen over noble metal/CeO2 , as indicated by H2 temperature-programmed reduction. The higher reducibility of ReOx -Au/CeO2 lowers the DODH activity of ReOx -Au/CeO2 +ReOx /C in comparison with ReOx /CeO2 +ReOx /C by restricting the movement of Re species from C to CeO2 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianmiao Wang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Masazumi Tamura
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
- Research Center for Rare Metal and Green Innovation, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-0845, Japan
| | - Yoshinao Nakagawa
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
- Research Center for Rare Metal and Green Innovation, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-0845, Japan
| | - Keiichi Tomishige
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
- Research Center for Rare Metal and Green Innovation, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-0845, Japan
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15
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MacQueen B, Barrow E, Rivera Castro G, Pagan-Torres Y, Heyden A, Lauterbach J. Optimum Reaction Conditions for 1,4-Anhydroerythritol and Xylitol Hydrodeoxygenation over a ReO x–Pd/CeO 2 Catalyst via Design of Experiments. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b01463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Blake MacQueen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, 541 Main Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Elizabeth Barrow
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, 541 Main Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Gerardo Rivera Castro
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Puerto Rico—Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00681-9000, United States
| | - Yomaira Pagan-Torres
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Puerto Rico—Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00681-9000, United States
| | - Andreas Heyden
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, 541 Main Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Jochen Lauterbach
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, 541 Main Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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