1
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Kelly JJ, Ankrom ET, Newkirk SE, Thévenin D, Pires MM. Targeted acidosis mediated delivery of antigenic MHC-binding peptides. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1337973. [PMID: 38665920 PMCID: PMC11043575 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1337973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are the primary effector immune cells responsible for protection against cancer, as they target peptide neoantigens presented through the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on cancer cells, leading to cell death. Targeting peptide-MHC (pMHC) complex offers a promising strategy for immunotherapy due to their specificity and effectiveness against cancer. In this work, we exploit the acidic tumor micro-environment to selectively deliver antigenic peptides to cancer using pH(low) insertion peptides (pHLIP). We demonstrated the delivery of MHC binding peptides directly to the cytoplasm of melanoma cells resulted in the presentation of antigenic peptides on MHC, and activation of T cells. This work highlights the potential of pHLIP as a vehicle for the targeted delivery of antigenic peptides and its presentation via MHC-bound complexes on cancer cell surface for activation of T cells with implications for enhancing anti-cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joey J. Kelly
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Emily T. Ankrom
- Department of Chemistry, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, United States
| | - Sarah E. Newkirk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Damien Thévenin
- Department of Chemistry, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, United States
| | - Marcos M. Pires
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
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2
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Kelly JJ, Ankrom E, Thévenin D, Pires MM. Targeted Acidosis Mediated Delivery of Antigenic MHC-Binding Peptides. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.18.562409. [PMID: 37904977 PMCID: PMC10614887 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.18.562409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are the primary effector immune cells responsible for protection against cancer, as they target peptide neoantigens presented through the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on cancer cells, leading to cell death. Targeting peptide-MHC (pMHC) complexes offers a promising strategy for immunotherapy due to its specificity and effectiveness against cancer. In this work, we exploit the acidic tumor micro-environment to selectively deliver antigenic peptides to cancer cells using pH(low) insertion peptides (pHLIP). We demonstrated that the delivery of MHC binding peptides directly to the cytoplasm of melanoma cells resulted in the presentation of antigenic peptides on MHC, and subsequent activation of T cells. This work highlights the potential of pHLIP as a vehicle for targeted delivery of antigenic peptides and their presentation via MHC-bound complexes on cancer cell surfaces for activation of T cells with implications for enhancing anti-cancer immunotherapy.
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3
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Marqvorsen MHS, Araman C, van Kasteren SI. Going Native: Synthesis of Glycoproteins and Glycopeptides via Native Linkages To Study Glycan-Specific Roles in the Immune System. Bioconjug Chem 2019; 30:2715-2726. [PMID: 31580646 PMCID: PMC6873266 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Glycosylation plays a myriad of roles in the immune system: Certain glycans can interact with specific immune receptors to kickstart a pro-inflammatory response, whereas other glycans can do precisely the opposite and ameliorate the immune response. Specific glycans and glycoforms can themselves become the targets of the adaptive immune system, leading to potent antiglycan responses that can lead to the killing of altered self- or pathogenic species. This hydra-like set of roles glycans play is of particular importance in cancer immunity, where it influences the anticancer immune response, likely playing pivotal roles in tumor survival or clearance. The complexity of carbohydrate biology requires synthetic access to glycoproteins and glycopeptides that harbor homogeneous glycans allowing the probing of these systems with high precision. One particular complicating factor in this is that these synthetic structures are required to be as close to the native structures as possible, as non-native linkages can themselves elicit immune responses. In this Review, we discuss examples and current strategies for the synthesis of natively linked single glycoforms of peptides and proteins that have enabled researchers to gain new insights into glycoimmunology, with a particular focus on the application of these reagents in cancer immunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikkel H. S. Marqvorsen
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Institute for Chemical Immunology Gorlaeus
Laboratories, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Can Araman
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Institute for Chemical Immunology Gorlaeus
Laboratories, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sander I. van Kasteren
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Institute for Chemical Immunology Gorlaeus
Laboratories, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
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4
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Marqvorsen MHS, Paramasivam S, Doelman W, Fairbanks AJ, van Kasteren SI. Efficient synthesis and enzymatic extension of an N-GlcNAz asparagine building block. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:5287-5290. [PMID: 30994122 DOI: 10.1039/c9cc02051a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
N-Azidoacetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAz) is a particularly useful tool in chemical biology as the azide is a metabolically stable yet accessible handle within biological systems. Herein, we report a practical synthesis of FmocAsn(N-Ac3GlcNAz)OH, a building block for solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS). Protecting group manipulations are minimised by taking advantage of the inherent chemoselectivity of phosphine-mediated azide reduction, and the resulting glycosyl amine is employed directly in the opening of Fmoc protected aspartic anhydride. We show potential application of the building block by establishing it as a substrate for enzymatic glycan extension using sugar oxazolines of varying size and biological significance with several endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidases (ENGases). The added steric bulk resulting from incorporation of the azide is shown to have no or a minor impact on the yield of enzymatic glycan extension.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sivasinthujah Paramasivam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Ward Doelman
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry (LIC), Division of Bio-Organic Chemistry, Einsteinweg 55, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Antony John Fairbanks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand and Biomolecular Interaction Centre, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Sander Izaäk van Kasteren
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry (LIC), Division of Bio-Organic Chemistry, Einsteinweg 55, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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5
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Araman C, van Gent ME, Meeuwenoord NJ, Heijmans N, Marqvorsen MHS, Doelman W, Faber BW, 't Hart BA, Van Kasteren SI. Amyloid-like Behavior of Site-Specifically Citrullinated Myelin Oligodendrocyte Protein (MOG) Peptide Fragments inside EBV-Infected B-Cells Influences Their Cytotoxicity and Autoimmunogenicity. Biochemistry 2019; 58:763-775. [PMID: 30513201 PMCID: PMC6374747 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Multiple
sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder manifested via
chronic inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration inside
the central nervous system. The progressive phase of MS is characterized
by neurodegeneration, but unlike classical neurodegenerative diseases,
amyloid-like aggregation of self-proteins has not been documented.
There is evidence that citrullination protects an immunodominant peptide
of human myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG34–56) against destructive processing in Epstein-Barr virus-infected B-lymphocytes
(EBV-BLCs) in marmosets and causes exacerbation of ongoing MS-like
encephalopathies in mice. Here we collected evidence that citrullination
of MOG can also lead to amyloid-like behavior shifting the disease
pathogenesis toward neurodegeneration. We observed that an immunodominant
MOG peptide, MOG35–55, displays amyloid-like behavior
upon site-specific citrullination at positions 41, 46, and/or 52.
These amyloid aggregates are shown to be toxic to the EBV-BLCs and
to dendritic cells at concentrations favored for antigen presentation,
suggesting a role of amyloid-like aggregation in the pathogenesis
of progressive MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Araman
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and Institute for Chemical Immunology , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Miriam E van Gent
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and Institute for Chemical Immunology , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Nico J Meeuwenoord
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and Department of Bioorganic Synthesis , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Nicole Heijmans
- Department of Immunobiology , Biomedical Primate Research Centre , 2288 GJ Rijswijk , The Netherlands
| | - Mikkel H S Marqvorsen
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and Institute for Chemical Immunology , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Ward Doelman
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and Institute for Chemical Immunology , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Bart W Faber
- Department of Parasitology , Biomedical Primate Research Centre , 2288 GJ Rijswijk , The Netherlands
| | - Bert A 't Hart
- Department of Immunobiology , Biomedical Primate Research Centre , 2288 GJ Rijswijk , The Netherlands.,Department of Neuroscience , University of Groningen, University Medical Centre , 9700 AB Groningen , The Netherlands
| | - Sander I Van Kasteren
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and Institute for Chemical Immunology , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
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6
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Baranov MV, Bianchi F, Schirmacher A, van Aart MAC, Maassen S, Muntjewerff EM, Dingjan I, Ter Beest M, Verdoes M, Keyser SGL, Bertozzi CR, Diederichsen U, van den Bogaart G. The Phosphoinositide Kinase PIKfyve Promotes Cathepsin-S-Mediated Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II Antigen Presentation. iScience 2018; 11:160-177. [PMID: 30612035 PMCID: PMC6319320 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2018.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Antigen presentation to T cells in major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC class II) requires the conversion of early endo/phagosomes into lysosomes by a process called maturation. Maturation is driven by the phosphoinositide kinase PIKfyve. Blocking PIKfyve activity by small molecule inhibitors caused a delay in the conversion of phagosomes into lysosomes and in phagosomal acidification, whereas production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased. Elevated ROS resulted in reduced activity of cathepsin S and B, but not X, causing a proteolytic defect of MHC class II chaperone invariant chain Ii processing. We developed a novel universal MHC class II presentation assay based on a bio-orthogonal "clickable" antigen and showed that MHC class II presentation was disrupted by the inhibition of PIKfyve, which in turn resulted in reduced activation of CD4+ T cells. Our results demonstrate a key role of PIKfyve in the processing and presentation of antigens, which should be taken into consideration when targeting PIKfyve in autoimmune disease and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maksim V Baranov
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Frans Bianchi
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, the Netherlands
| | - Anastasiya Schirmacher
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Tammannstr. 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Melissa A C van Aart
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Sjors Maassen
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, the Netherlands
| | - Elke M Muntjewerff
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Ilse Dingjan
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Martin Ter Beest
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Martijn Verdoes
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | | | - Carolyn R Bertozzi
- Department of Chemistry and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ulf Diederichsen
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Tammannstr. 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Geert van den Bogaart
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, the Netherlands.
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7
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van der Gracht AMF, de Geus MAR, Camps MGM, Ruckwardt TJ, Sarris AJC, Bremmers J, Maurits E, Pawlak JB, Posthoorn MM, Bonger KM, Filippov DV, Overkleeft HS, Robillard MS, Ossendorp F, van Kasteren SI. Chemical Control over T-Cell Activation in Vivo Using Deprotection of trans-Cyclooctene-Modified Epitopes. ACS Chem Biol 2018; 13:1569-1576. [PMID: 29733186 PMCID: PMC6006443 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.8b00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Activation
of a cytotoxic T-cell is a complex multistep process,
and tools to study the molecular events and their dynamics that result
in T-cell activation in situ and in vivo are scarce. Here, we report the design and use of conditional epitopes
for time-controlled T-cell activation in vivo. We
show that trans-cyclooctene-protected SIINFEKL (with
the lysine amine masked) is unable to elicit the T-cell response characteristic
for the free SIINFEKL epitope. Epitope uncaging by means of an inverse-electron
demand Diels–Alder (IEDDA) event restored T-cell activation
and provided temporal control of T-cell proliferation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouk M. F. van der Gracht
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mark A. R. de Geus
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel G. M. Camps
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Tracy J. Ruckwardt
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institute of Health, 40 Convent Drive, Building 40, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, United States
| | - Alexi J. C. Sarris
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jessica Bremmers
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Elmer Maurits
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Joanna B. Pawlak
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Michelle M. Posthoorn
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Kimberly M. Bonger
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Dmitri V. Filippov
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Herman S. Overkleeft
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marc S. Robillard
- Tagworks Pharmaceuticals, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 10, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ferry Ossendorp
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sander I. van Kasteren
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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8
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Bakkum T, van Leeuwen T, Sarris AJC, van Elsland DM, Poulcharidis D, Overkleeft HS, van Kasteren SI. Quantification of Bioorthogonal Stability in Immune Phagocytes Using Flow Cytometry Reveals Rapid Degradation of Strained Alkynes. ACS Chem Biol 2018; 13:1173-1179. [PMID: 29693370 PMCID: PMC5962927 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.8b00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
![]()
One of the areas
in which bioorthogonal chemistry—chemistry
performed inside a cell or organism—has become of pivotal importance
is in the study of host–pathogen interactions. The incorporation
of bioorthogonal groups into the cell wall or proteome of intracellular
pathogens has allowed study within the endolysosomal system. However,
for the approach to be successful, the incorporated bioorthogonal
groups must be stable to chemical conditions found within these organelles,
which are some of the harshest found in metazoans: the groups are
exposed to oxidizing species, acidic conditions, and reactive thiols.
Here we present an assay that allows the assessment of the stability
of bioorthogonal groups within host cell phagosomes. Using a flow
cytometry-based assay, we have quantified the relative label stability
inside dendritic cell phagosomes of strained and unstrained alkynes.
We show that groups that were shown to be stable in other systems
were degraded by as much as 79% after maturation of the phagosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Bakkum
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Tyrza van Leeuwen
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Alexi J. C. Sarris
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Daphne M. van Elsland
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Dimitrios Poulcharidis
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Herman S. Overkleeft
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sander I. van Kasteren
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry and The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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9
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Hos BJ, Tondini E, van Kasteren SI, Ossendorp F. Approaches to Improve Chemically Defined Synthetic Peptide Vaccines. Front Immunol 2018; 9:884. [PMID: 29755468 PMCID: PMC5932164 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Progress made in peptide-based vaccinations to induce T-cell-dependent immune responses against cancer has invigorated the search for optimal vaccine modalities. Design of new vaccine strategies intrinsically depends on the knowledge of antigen handling and optimal epitope presentation in both major histocompatibility complex class I and -II molecules by professional antigen-presenting cells to induce robust CD8 and CD4 T-cell responses. Although there is a steady increase in the understanding of the underlying mechanisms that bridges innate and adaptive immunology, many questions remain to be answered. Moreover, we are in the early stage of exploiting this knowledge to clinical advantage. Several adaptations of peptide-based vaccines like peptide-adjuvant conjugates have been explored and showed beneficial outcomes in preclinical models; but in the clinical trials conducted so far, mixed results were obtained. A major limiting factor to unravel antigen handling mechanistically is the lack of tools to efficiently track peptide vaccines at the molecular and (sub)cellular level. In this mini-review, we will discuss options to develop molecular tools for improving, as well as studying, peptide-based vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett J Hos
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Elena Tondini
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Sander I van Kasteren
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, The Institute for Chemical Immunology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Ferry Ossendorp
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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