1
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Li B, Xiao X, Bi M, Jiao Q, Chen X, Yan C, Du X, Jiang H. Modulating α-synuclein propagation and decomposition: Implications in Parkinson's disease therapy. Ageing Res Rev 2024; 98:102319. [PMID: 38719160 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2024.102319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
α-Synuclein (α-Syn) is closely related to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Under pathological conditions, the conformation of α-syn changes and different forms of α-syn lead to neurotoxicity. According to Braak stages, α-syn can propagate in different brain regions, inducing neurodegeneration and corresponding clinical manifestations through abnormal aggregation of Lewy bodies (LBs) and lewy axons in different types of neurons in PD. So far, PD lacks early diagnosis biomarkers, and treatments are mainly targeted at some clinical symptoms. There is no effective therapy to delay the progression of PD. This review first summarized the role of α-syn in physiological and pathological states, and the relationship between α-syn and PD. Then, we focused on the origin, secretion, aggregation, propagation and degradation of α-syn as well as the important regulatory factors in these processes systematically. Finally, we reviewed some potential drug candidates for alleviating the abnormal aggregation of α-syn in order to provide valuable targets for the treatment of PD to cope with the occurrence and progression of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beining Li
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xue Xiao
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Mingxia Bi
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Qian Jiao
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xi Chen
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Chunling Yan
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xixun Du
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Hong Jiang
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao 266113, China; School of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China.
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2
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Dada ST, Toprakcioglu Z, Cali MP, Röntgen A, Hardenberg MC, Morris OM, Mrugalla LK, Knowles TPJ, Vendruscolo M. Pharmacological inhibition of α-synuclein aggregation within liquid condensates. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3835. [PMID: 38714700 PMCID: PMC11076612 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47585-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Aggregated forms of α-synuclein constitute the major component of Lewy bodies, the proteinaceous aggregates characteristic of Parkinson's disease. Emerging evidence suggests that α-synuclein aggregation may occur within liquid condensates formed through phase separation. This mechanism of aggregation creates new challenges and opportunities for drug discovery for Parkinson's disease, which is otherwise still incurable. Here we show that the condensation-driven aggregation pathway of α-synuclein can be inhibited using small molecules. We report that the aminosterol claramine stabilizes α-synuclein condensates and inhibits α-synuclein aggregation within the condensates both in vitro and in a Caenorhabditis elegans model of Parkinson's disease. By using a chemical kinetics approach, we show that the mechanism of action of claramine is to inhibit primary nucleation within the condensates. These results illustrate a possible therapeutic route based on the inhibition of protein aggregation within condensates, a phenomenon likely to be relevant in other neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel T Dada
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Zenon Toprakcioglu
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Mariana P Cali
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Alexander Röntgen
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Maarten C Hardenberg
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Owen M Morris
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Lena K Mrugalla
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Tuomas P J Knowles
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Michele Vendruscolo
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Misfolding Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK.
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3
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Gigon L, Müller P, Haenni B, Iacovache I, Barbo M, Gosheva G, Yousefi S, Soragni A, von Ballmoos C, Zuber B, Simon HU. Membrane damage by MBP-1 is mediated by pore formation and amplified by mtDNA. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114084. [PMID: 38583154 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Eosinophils play a crucial role in host defense while also contributing to immunopathology through the release of inflammatory mediators. Characterized by distinctive cytoplasmic granules, eosinophils securely store and rapidly release various proteins exhibiting high toxicity upon extracellular release. Among these, major basic protein 1 (MBP-1) emerges as an important mediator in eosinophil function against pathogens and in eosinophil-associated diseases. While MBP-1 targets both microorganisms and host cells, its precise mechanism remains elusive. We demonstrate that formation of small pores by MBP-1 in lipid bilayers induces membrane permeabilization and disrupts potassium balance. Additionally, we reveal that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) present in eosinophil extracellular traps (EETs) amplifies MBP-1 toxic effects, underscoring the pivotal role of mtDNA in EETs. Furthermore, we present evidence indicating that absence of CpG methylation in mtDNA contributes to the regulation of MBP-1-mediated toxicity. Taken together, our data suggest that the mtDNA scaffold within extracellular traps promotes MBP-1 toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Gigon
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Müller
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Beat Haenni
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ioan Iacovache
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Maruša Barbo
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gordana Gosheva
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Shida Yousefi
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alice Soragni
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Christoph von Ballmoos
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Benoît Zuber
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Uwe Simon
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Institute of Biochemistry, Brandenburg Medical School, 16816 Neuruppin, Germany.
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4
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Rinauro DJ, Chiti F, Vendruscolo M, Limbocker R. Misfolded protein oligomers: mechanisms of formation, cytotoxic effects, and pharmacological approaches against protein misfolding diseases. Mol Neurodegener 2024; 19:20. [PMID: 38378578 PMCID: PMC10877934 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-023-00651-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The conversion of native peptides and proteins into amyloid aggregates is a hallmark of over 50 human disorders, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Increasing evidence implicates misfolded protein oligomers produced during the amyloid formation process as the primary cytotoxic agents in many of these devastating conditions. In this review, we analyze the processes by which oligomers are formed, their structures, physicochemical properties, population dynamics, and the mechanisms of their cytotoxicity. We then focus on drug discovery strategies that target the formation of oligomers and their ability to disrupt cell physiology and trigger degenerative processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon J Rinauro
- Centre for Misfolding Diseases, Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Fabrizio Chiti
- Section of Biochemistry, Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, 50134, Florence, Italy
| | - Michele Vendruscolo
- Centre for Misfolding Diseases, Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK.
| | - Ryan Limbocker
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY, 10996, USA.
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5
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McVey Neufeld KA, Mao YK, West CL, Ahn M, Hameed H, Iwashita E, Stanisz AM, Forsythe P, Barbut D, Zasloff M, Kunze WA. Squalamine reverses age-associated changes of firing patterns of myenteric sensory neurons and vagal fibres. Commun Biol 2024; 7:80. [PMID: 38200107 PMCID: PMC10781697 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05623-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Vagus nerve signaling is a key component of the gut-brain axis and regulates diverse physiological processes that decline with age. Gut to brain vagus firing patterns are regulated by myenteric intrinsic primary afferent neuron (IPAN) to vagus neurotransmission. It remains unclear how IPANs or the afferent vagus age functionally. Here we identified a distinct ageing code in gut to brain neurotransmission defined by consistent differences in firing rates, burst durations, interburst and intraburst firing intervals of IPANs and the vagus, when comparing young and aged neurons. The aminosterol squalamine changed aged neurons firing patterns to a young phenotype. In contrast to young neurons, sertraline failed to increase firing rates in the aged vagus whereas squalamine was effective. These results may have implications for improved treatments involving pharmacological and electrical stimulation of the vagus for age-related mood and other disorders. For example, oral squalamine might be substituted for or added to sertraline for the aged.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yu-Kang Mao
- Brain-Body Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Christine L West
- Brain-Body Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Matthew Ahn
- Brain-Body Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Hashim Hameed
- Brain-Body Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Eiko Iwashita
- Brain-Body Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | | | - Paul Forsythe
- Department of Medicine, 569 Heritage Medical Research Center, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | | | - Michael Zasloff
- Enterin, Inc., Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- MedStar-Georgetown Transplant Institute, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Wolfgang A Kunze
- Brain-Body Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
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6
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Maccari R, Ottanà R. Can Allostery Be a Key Strategy for Targeting PTP1B in Drug Discovery? A Lesson from Trodusquemine. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119621. [PMID: 37298571 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is an enzyme crucially implicated in aberrations of various signaling pathways that underlie the development of different human pathologies, such as obesity, diabetes, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders. Its inhibition can prevent these pathogenetic events, thus providing a useful tool for the discovery of novel therapeutic agents. The search for allosteric PTP1B inhibitors can represent a successful strategy to identify drug-like candidates by offering the opportunity to overcome some issues related to catalytic site-directed inhibitors, which have so far hampered the development of drugs targeting this enzyme. In this context, trodusquemine (MSI-1436), a natural aminosterol that acts as a non-competitive PTP1B inhibitor, appears to be a milestone. Initially discovered as a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent, trodusquemine exhibited a variety of unexpected properties, ranging from antidiabetic and anti-obesity activities to effects useful to counteract cancer and neurodegeneration, which prompted its evaluation in several preclinical and clinical studies. In this review article, we provide an overview of the main findings regarding the activities and therapeutic potential of trodusquemine and their correlation with PTP1B inhibition. We also included some aminosterol analogues and related structure-activity relationships that could be useful for further studies aimed at the discovery of new allosteric PTP1B inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanna Maccari
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Rosaria Ottanà
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
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7
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Somavarapu AK, Kleijwegt G, Nagaraj M, Alam P, Nielsen J, Otzen DE. Drug repurposing screens identify compounds that inhibit α-synuclein oligomers' membrane disruption and block antibody interactions. Chem Sci 2023; 14:3030-3047. [PMID: 36937574 PMCID: PMC10016340 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc05534a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Small soluble oligomers of the protein α-synuclein (αSO) have been linked to disruptions in neuronal homeostasis, contributing to the development of Parkinson's Disease (PD). While this makes αSO an obvious drug target, the development of effective therapeutics against αSO is challenged by its low abundance and structural and morphological complexity. Here, we employ two different approaches to neutralize toxic interactions made by αSOs with different cellular components. First, we use available data to identify four neuronal proteins as likely candidates for αSO interactions, namely Cfl1, Uchl1, Sirt2 and SerRS. However, despite promising results when immobilized, all 4 proteins only bind weakly to αSO in solution in microfluidic assays, making them inappropriate for screening. In contrast, the formation of stable contacts formed between αSO and vesicles consisting of anionic lipids not only mimics a likely biological role of αSO but also provided a platform to screen two small molecule libraries for disruptors of these contacts. Of the 7 best leads obtained in this way, 2 significantly impaired αSO contacts with other proteins in a sandwich ELISA assay using αSO-binding monoclonal antibodies and nanobodies. In addition, 5 of these leads suppressed α-synuclein amyloid formation. Thus, a repurposing screening that directly targets a key culprit in PD pathogenesis shows therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Kumar Somavarapu
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Giulia Kleijwegt
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Madhu Nagaraj
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Parvez Alam
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Janni Nielsen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Daniel E Otzen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
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8
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Joshi P, Chia S, Yang X, Perni M, Gabriel JM, Gilmer M, Limbocker R, Habchi J, Vendruscolo M. Combinations of Vitamin A and Vitamin E Metabolites Confer Resilience against Amyloid-β Aggregation. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:657-666. [PMID: 36728544 PMCID: PMC9936541 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the presence in the brain of amyloid plaques formed by the aberrant deposition of the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ). Since many vitamins are dysregulated in this disease, we explored whether these molecules contribute to the protein homeostasis system by modulating Aβ aggregation. By screening 18 fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamin metabolites, we found that retinoic acid and α-tocopherol, two metabolites of vitamin A and vitamin E, respectively, affect Aβ aggregation both in vitro and in a Caenorhabditis elegans model of Aβ toxicity. We then show that the effects of these two vitamin metabolites in specific combinations cancel each other out, consistent with the "resilience in complexity" hypothesis, according to which the complex composition of the cellular environment could have an overall protective role against protein aggregation through the simultaneous presence of aggregation promoters and inhibitors. Taken together, these results indicate that vitamins can be added to the list of components of the protein homeostasis system that regulate protein aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Joshi
- Centre
for Misfolding Diseases, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,The
California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, Department of Nutritional
Sciences and Toxicology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States,
| | - Sean Chia
- Centre
for Misfolding Diseases, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Xiaoting Yang
- Centre
for Misfolding Diseases, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Michele Perni
- Centre
for Misfolding Diseases, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Justus M. Gabriel
- Department
of Chemistry and Life Science, United States
Military Academy, West Point, New York 10996, United States
| | - Marshall Gilmer
- Department
of Chemistry and Life Science, United States
Military Academy, West Point, New York 10996, United States
| | - Ryan Limbocker
- Department
of Chemistry and Life Science, United States
Military Academy, West Point, New York 10996, United States
| | - Johnny Habchi
- Centre
for Misfolding Diseases, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Michele Vendruscolo
- Centre
for Misfolding Diseases, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,
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9
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Gabriel JM, Tan T, Rinauro DJ, Hsu CM, Buettner CJ, Gilmer M, Kaur A, McKenzie TL, Park M, Cohen S, Errico S, Wright AK, Chiti F, Vendruscolo M, Limbocker R. EGCG inactivates a pore-forming toxin by promoting its oligomerization and decreasing its solvent-exposed hydrophobicity. Chem Biol Interact 2023; 371:110307. [PMID: 36535315 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Natural proteinaceous pore-forming agents can bind and permeabilize cell membranes, leading to ion dyshomeostasis and cell death. In the search for antidotes that can protect cells from peptide toxins, we discovered that the polyphenol epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) interacts directly with melittin from honeybee venom, resulting in the elimination of its binding to the cell membrane and toxicity by markedly lowering the extent of its solvent-exposed hydrophobicity and promoting its oligomerization into larger species. These physicochemical parameters have also been shown to play a key role in the binding to cells of misfolded protein oligomers in a host of neurodegenerative diseases, where oligomer-membrane binding and associated toxicity have been shown to correlate negatively with oligomer size and positively with solvent-exposed hydrophobicity. For melittin, which is not an amyloid-forming protein and has a very distinct mechanism of toxicity compared to misfolded oligomers, we find that the size-hydrophobicity-toxicity relationship also rationalizes the pharmacological attenuation of melittin toxicity by EGCG. These results highlight the importance of the physicochemical properties of pore forming agents in mediating their interactions with cell membranes and suggest a possible therapeutic approach based on compounds with a similar mechanism of action as EGCG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justus M Gabriel
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Thomas Tan
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Dillon J Rinauro
- Centre for Misfolding Diseases, Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Claire M Hsu
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Caleb J Buettner
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Marshall Gilmer
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Amrita Kaur
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Tristan L McKenzie
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Martin Park
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Sophie Cohen
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Silvia Errico
- Centre for Misfolding Diseases, Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK; Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Aidan K Wright
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Fabrizio Chiti
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Michele Vendruscolo
- Centre for Misfolding Diseases, Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Ryan Limbocker
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA.
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