In Vivo Solid-Phase Microextraction and Applications in Environmental Sciences

Emerging contaminants: A One Health perspective

Environmental pollution is escalating due to rapid global development that often prioritizes human needs over planetary health. Despite global efforts to mitigate legacy pollutants, the continuous introduction of new substances remains a major threat to both people and the planet. In response, global initiatives are focusing on risk assessment and regulation of emerging contaminants, as demonstrated by the ongoing efforts to establish the UN's Intergovernmental Science-Policy Panel on Chemicals, Waste, and Pollution Prevention. This review identifies the sources and impacts of emerging contaminants on planetary health, emphasizing the importance of adopting a One Health approach. Strategies for monitoring and addressing these pollutants are discussed, underscoring the need for robust and socially equitable environmental policies at both regional and international levels. Urgent actions are needed to transition toward sustainable pollution management practices to safeguard our planet for future generations.

In vivo profiling of phytocannabinoids in Cannabis spp. varieties via SPME-LC-MS analysis

BACKGROUND

In vivo solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is a minimally invasive, non-exhaustive sample-preparation technique that facilitates the direct isolation of low molecular weight compounds from biological matrices in living systems. This technique is especially useful for the analysis of phytocannabinoids (PCs) in plant material, both for forensic purposes and for monitoring the PC content in growing Cannabis spp. plants. In contrast to traditional extraction techniques, in vivo SPME enables continuous tracking of the changes in the level of PCs during plant growth without the need for plant material collection. In this study, in vivo SPME utilizing biocompatible C18 probes and liquid-chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS) is proposed as a novel strategy for the extraction and analysis of the acidic forms of five PCs in growing medicinal cannabis plants.

RESULTS

The SPME method was optimized by testing various parameters, including the extraction phase (coating), extraction and desorption times, and the extraction temperature. The proposed method was validated with satisfactory analytical performance regarding linearity (10-3000 ng/mL), limits of quantification, and precision (relative standard deviations below 5.5 %). The proposed method was then successfully applied for the isolation of five acidic forms of PCs, which are main components of growing medicinal cannabis plants. As a proof-of-concept, SPME probes were statically inserted into the inflorescences of two varieties of Cannabis spp. plants (i.e., CBD-dominant and Δ9-THC-dominant) cultivated under controlled conditions for 30 min extraction of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabiviarinic acid (CBVA), and tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid (THCVA).

SIGNIFICANCE AND NOVELTY

The results confirmed that the developed SPME-LC-Q-TOF-MS method is a precise and efficient tool that enables direct and rapid isolation and analysis of PCs under in vivo conditions. The proposed methodology is highly appealing option for monitoring the metabolic pathways and compositions of multiple PCs in medicinal cannabis at different stages of plant growth.

Application of non-lethal bioSPME-LC-MS/MS for the detection of human pharmaceuticals in soft corals: A survey at the North Nilandhe atoll (Maldives)

At present the information regarding the occurrence of human pharmaceuticals (PhaCs) in coral reefs and their potential impacts on the associated fauna is limited. To optimize the collection of data in these delicate environments, we employed a solid-phase microextraction (bioSPME) and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) procedure that enabled in vivo determinations in soft corals. Specifically, we researched the antibiotics Ofloxacin Sulfamethoxazole and Clarithromycin, the anti-inflammatory Diclofenac Propyphenazone Ketoprofen and Amisulpride, the neuroactive compounds Gabapentin-lactam, the beta-blocker Metoprolol and the antiepileptic Carbamazepine. Reproducibility was between 2.1% and 9.9% and method detection limits LODs) were between 0.2 and 1.6 ng/g and LOQs between 0.8 and 5.4 mg/g. The method was then applied to establish a baseline for the occurrence of these compounds in the Maldivian archipelago. Colonies of Sarcophyton sp. and Sinularia sp. were sampled along an inner-outer reef transect. Five of the ten targeted PhaCs were identified, and 40% of the surveyed coral colonies showed the occurrence of at least one of the selected compounds. The highest concentrations were found inside the atoll rim. Oxoflacin (9.5 ± 3.9 ng/g) and Ketoprofen (4.5 ± 2.3 ng/g) were the compounds with the highest average concentrations. Outside the atoll rim, only one sample showed contamination levels above the detection limit. No significant differences were highlighted among the two surveyed soft coral species, both in terms of average concentrations and bioconcentration factors (BCFs).

Quantitative Determination of Poly(methyl Methacrylate) Micro/Nanoplastics by Cooling-Assisted Solid-Phase Microextraction Coupled to Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry: Theoretical and Experimental Insights

Determinations of micro/nanoplastics (MNPs) in environmental samples are essential to assess the extent of their presence in the environment and their potential impact on ecosystems and human health. With the aim to provide a sensitive method with simplified pretreatment steps, cooling-assisted solid-phase microextraction (CA-SPME) coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is proposed as a new approach to quantify mass concentrations of MNPs in water and soil samples. The herein proposed CA-SPME method offers the unique advantage of integrating the thermal decomposition of MNPs and enrichment of signature compounds into one step. Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) was used as a model substance to verify the method performance in this work. Theoretical insights demonstrated that pyrolysis is the rate-determining step during the extraction process and that PMMA is effectively decomposed at 350 °C with an estimated incubation time of 13 min. Eight compounds were identified in the pyrolysis products by CA-SPME-GC-MS with the use of a DVB/CAR/PDMS coating, wherein methyl methacrylate was considered as the best indicator and dimethyl 2-methylenesuccinate was selected as the confirmation compound. Under the optimized conditions, the proposed method exhibited wide linearity (0.5-2000 μg for water and 5-1000 μg for soil) and high sensitivity, with limits of detection of 0.014 and 0.28 μg for water and soil, respectively. Finally, the proposed method was successfully applied for determinations of PMMA MNPs in real water and soil samples with satisfactory recoveries attained. The method only required the employment of a filter membrane for water analysis, while soil samples were analyzed directly without any pretreatment. The solvent-free approach, straightforward operation, and high sensitivity of the proposed method show great potential for the analysis of MNPs in different environmental samples.

SPME as a green sample-preparation technique for the monitoring of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids in complex matrices

The endocannabinoid system (ECS), particularly its signaling pathways and ligands, has garnered considerable interest in recent years. Along with clinical work investigating the ECS' functions, including its role in the development of neurological and inflammatory conditions, much research has focused on developing analytical protocols enabling the precise monitoring of the levels and metabolism of the most potent ECS ligands: exogenous phytocannabinoids (PCs) and endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids, ECs). Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is an advanced, non-exhaustive sample-preparation technique that facilitates the precise and efficient isolation of trace amounts of analytes, thus making it appealing for the analysis of PCs and ECs in complex matrices of plant and animal/human origin. In this paper, we review recent forensic medicine and toxicological studies wherein SPME has been applied to monitor levels of PCs and ECs in complex matrices, determine their effects on organism physiology, and assess their role in the development of several diseases.

Monitoring of age- and gender-related alterations of endocannabinoid levels in selected brain regions with the use of SPME probes

INTRODUCTION

The endocannabinoid system consists of different types of receptors, enzymes and endocannabinoids (ECs), which are involved in several physiological processes, but also play important role in the development and progression of central nervous system disorders.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to apply precise and sensitive methodology for monitoring of four ECs, namely anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), N-arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA), 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether (2-AGe) in selected brain regions of female and male rats at different stages of development (young, adult and old).

METHODS

Biocompatible solid-phase microextraction (SPME) probes were introduced into the intact (non-homogenized) brain structures for isolation of four ECs, and the extracts were subjected to LC-MS/MS analysis. Two chemometric approaches, namely hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were applied to provide more information about the levels of 2-AG and AEA in different brain structures.

RESULTS

2-AG and AEA were extracted and could be quantified in each brain region; the level of 2-AG was significantly higher in comparison to the level of AEA. Two highly unstable ECs, NADA and 2-AGe, were captured by SPME probes from intact brain samples for the first time.

CONCLUSION

SPME probes were able to isolate highly unstable endogenous compounds from intact tissue, and provided new tools for precise analysis of the level and distribution of ECs in different brain regions. Monitoring of ECs in brain samples is important not only in physiological conditions, but also may contribute to better understanding of the functioning of the endocannabinoid system in various disorders.

In Vivo Tracking of Persistent Organic Pollutants via a Coaxially Integrated and Implanted Photofuel Microsensor

In vivo tracking of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is of great significance for assessing their risks to the ecological environment and human health. However, existing in vivo POPs detection methods are limited by the lethal sampling of living organisms, complex sample preparation processes, or bulky testing equipment. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensing with the merits of high sensitivity and simple equipment is a fast-developed method for in vivo analysis. A major obstacle for in vivo PEC sensors is the separated implantation of multiple electrodes and a light source, which raises concerns like multielectrode biofouling and electroactive molecules interference in the complex environment, uncertain electrode implant distance, and multiple insertion operations. Here, a coaxially implanted photofuel microsensor was developed by hiding the optical fiber-based photoanode inside the glass capillary-based biocathode, and the model target PCB77 can be detected with an ultralow detection limit (2.8 fg/mL). This unique photoanode-biocathode-light source integrated structure ensures excellent selectivity, good antifouling ability and biocompatibility, high accuracy, and less implant mechanical damage. Combined with a handheld pH meter, our sensor achieved convenient and direct tracking of the bioaccumulation levels of PCB77 in freely swimming fish.