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Heydarian N, Ferrell M, Nair AS, Roedl C, Peng Z, Nguyen TD, Best W, Wozniak KL, Rice CV. Low-Molecular Weight Branched Polyethylenimine Reduces Cytokine Secretion from Human Immune System Monocytes Stimulated with Bacterial and Fungal PAMPs. ChemMedChem 2024; 19:e202400011. [PMID: 38740551 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202400011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The innate immune system is an evolutionarily conserved pathogen recognition mechanism that serves as the first line of defense against tissue damage or pathogen invasion. Unlike the adaptive immunity that recruits T-cells and specific antibodies against antigens, innate immune cells express pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) that can detect various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) released by invading pathogens. Microbial molecular patterns, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria, trigger signaling cascades in the host that result in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. LPS stimulation produces a strong immune response and excessive LPS signaling leads to dysregulation of the immune response. However, dysregulated inflammatory response during wound healing often results in chronic non-healing wounds that are difficult to control. In this work, we present data demonstrating partial neutralization of anionic LPS molecules using cationic branched polyethylenimine (BPEI). The anionic sites on the LPS molecules from Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) are the lipid A moiety and BPEI binding create steric factors that hinder the binding of PRR signaling co-factors. This reduces the production of pro-inflammatory TNF-α cytokines. However, the anionic sites of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) LPS are in the O-antigen region and subsequent BPEI binding slightly reduces TNF-α cytokine production. Fortunately, BPEI can reduce TNF-α cytokine expression in response to stimulation by intact P. aeruginosa bacterial cells and fungal zymosan PAMPs. Thus low-molecular weight (600 Da) BPEI may be able to counter dysregulated inflammation in chronic wounds and promote successful repair following tissue injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Heydarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Maya Ferrell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Ayesha S Nair
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 307 Life Sciences East, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Chase Roedl
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Zongkai Peng
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Tra D Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - William Best
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Karen L Wozniak
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 307 Life Sciences East, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Charles V Rice
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
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2
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Zhong Y, Guo J, Zheng Y, Lin H, Su Y. Metabolomics analysis of the lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 14917 response to antibiotic stress. BMC Microbiol 2024; 24:229. [PMID: 38943061 PMCID: PMC11212188 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-024-03385-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lactobacillus plantarum has been found to play a significant role in maintaining the balance of intestinal flora in the human gut. However, it is sensitive to commonly used antibiotics and is often incidentally killed during treatment. We attempted to identify a means to protect L. plantarum ATCC14917 from the metabolic changes caused by two commonly used antibiotics, ampicillin, and doxycycline. We examined the metabolic changes under ampicillin and doxycycline treatment and assessed the protective effects of adding key exogenous metabolites. RESULTS Using metabolomics, we found that under the stress of ampicillin or doxycycline, L. plantarum ATCC14917 exhibited reduced metabolic activity, with purine metabolism a key metabolic pathway involved in this change. We then screened the key biomarkers in this metabolic pathway, guanine and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The exogenous addition of each of these two metabolites significantly reduced the lethality of ampicillin and doxycycline on L. plantarum ATCC14917. Because purine metabolism is closely related to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the results showed that the addition of guanine or ADP reduced intracellular ROS levels in L. plantarum ATCC14917. Moreover, the killing effects of ampicillin and doxycycline on L. plantarum ATCC14917 were restored by the addition of a ROS accelerator in the presence of guanine or ADP. CONCLUSIONS The metabolic changes of L. plantarum ATCC14917 under antibiotic treatments were determined. Moreover, the metabolome information that was elucidated can be used to help L. plantarum cope with adverse stress, which will help probiotics become less vulnerable to antibiotics during clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilin Zhong
- Department of Cell Biology & Institute of Biomedicine, MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine, College of Life Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center of Genetic Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Juan Guo
- Department of Cell Biology & Institute of Biomedicine, MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine, College of Life Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center of Genetic Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Yu Zheng
- Department of Cell Biology & Institute of Biomedicine, MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine, College of Life Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center of Genetic Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Huale Lin
- Department of Cell Biology & Institute of Biomedicine, MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine, College of Life Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center of Genetic Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Yubin Su
- Department of Cell Biology & Institute of Biomedicine, MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine, College of Life Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center of Genetic Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
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3
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Best W, Ferrell M, Boris A, Heydarian N, Panlilio H, Rice CV. Acquisition of Resistance to PEGylated Branched Polyethylenimine Increases Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Susceptibility to Aminoglycosides. ChemMedChem 2024:e202300689. [PMID: 38806411 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202300689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
PEGylated branched polyethylenimine (PEG-BPEI) has antibacterial and antibiofilm properties. Exposure to PEG-BPEI through serial passage leads to resistant P. aeruginosa strains. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 600 Da BPEI and PEGylated 600 Da BPEI (PEG-BPEI) in the wild-type PAO1 strain is 16 μg/ml while, after 15 serial passages, the MIC increased to 1024 μg/mL. An additional 15 rounds of serial passage in the absence of BPEI or PEG-BPEI did not change the 1024 μg/mL MIC. Gentamicin, Neomycin, and Tobramycin, cationic antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis, have a 16-32 fold reduction of MIC values in PEG350-BPEI resistant strains, suggesting increased permeation. The influx of these antibiotics occurs using a self-mediated uptake mechanism, suggesting changes to the outer membrane Data show that resistance causes changes in genes related to outer membrane lipopolysaccharide (LPS) assembly. Mutations were noted in the gene coding for the polymerase Wzy that participates in the assembly of the O-antigen region. Other mutations were noted with wbpE and wbpI of the Wbp pathway responsible for the enzymatic synthesis of ManNAc(3NAc)A in the LPS of P. aeruginosa. These changes suggest that an altered gene product could lead to PEG-BPEI resistance. Nevertheless, the increased susceptibility to aminoglycosides could prevent the emergence of PEG-BPEI resistant bacterial populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Best
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73069
| | - Maya Ferrell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73069
| | - Andrew Boris
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73069
| | - Neda Heydarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73069
| | - Hannah Panlilio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73069
| | - Charles V Rice
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73069
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4
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Heydarian N, Ferrell M, Nair AS, Roedl C, Peng Z, Nguyen TD, Best W, Wozniak KL, Rice CV. Neutralizing Staphylococcus aureus PAMPs that Trigger Cytokine Release from THP-1 Monocytes. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:10967-10978. [PMID: 38463252 PMCID: PMC10918781 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Innate immunity has considerable specificity and can discriminate between individual species of microbes. In this regard, pathogens are "seen" as dangerous to the host and elicit an inflammatory response capable of destroying the microbes. This immune discrimination is achieved by toll-like receptors on host cells recognizing pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, and microbe-specific pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) molecules, such as lipoteichoic acid (LTA). PAMPs impede wound healing by lengthening the inflammatory phase of healing and contributing to the development of chronic wounds. Preventing PAMPs from triggering the release of inflammatory cytokines will counteract the dysregulation of inflammation. Here, we use ELISA to evaluate the use of cationic molecules branched polyethylenimine (BPEI), PEGylated BPEI (PEG-BPEI), and polymyxin-B to neutralize anionic LTA and lower levels of TNF-α cytokine release from human THP-1 monocytes in a concentration-dependent manner. Additional data collected with qPCR shows that BPEI and PEG-BPEI reduce the expression profile of the TNF-α gene. Similar effects are observed for the neutralization of whole-cell S. aureus bacteria. In vitro cytotoxicity data demonstrate that PEGylation lowers the toxicity of PEG-BPEI (IC50 = 2661 μm) compared to BPEI (IC50 = 853 μM) and that both compounds are orders of magnitude less toxic than the cationic antibiotic polymyxin-B (IC50 = 79 μM). Additionally, the LTA neutralization ability of polymyxin-B is less effective than BPEI or PEG-BPEI. These properties of BPEI and PEG-BPEI expand their utility beyond disabling antibiotic resistance mechanisms and disrupting S. aureus biofilms, providing additional justification for developing these agents as wound healing therapeutics. The multiple mechanisms of action for BPEI and PEG-BPEI are superior to current wound treatment strategies that have a single modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Heydarian
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Maya Ferrell
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Ayesha S. Nair
- Department
of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 307 Life Sciences East, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Chase Roedl
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Zongkai Peng
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Tra D. Nguyen
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - William Best
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Karen L. Wozniak
- Department
of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 307 Life Sciences East, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Charles V. Rice
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
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5
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Wouters CL, Heydarian N, Pusavat J, Panlilio H, Lam AK, Moen EL, Brennan RE, Rice CV. Breaking membrane barriers to neutralize E. coli and K. pneumoniae virulence with PEGylated branched polyethylenimine. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2023; 1865:184172. [PMID: 37201561 PMCID: PMC10330601 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2023.184172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial infections caused by Gram-negative pathogens, such as those in the family Enterobacteriaceae, are among the most difficult to treat because effective therapeutic options are either very limited or non-existent. This raises serious concern regarding the emergence and spread of multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens in the community setting; and thus, creates the need for discovery efforts and/or early-stage development of novel therapies for infections. Our work is directed towards branched polyethylenimine (BPEI) modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a strategy for targeting virulence from Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. Here, we neutralize lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a barrier to the influx of antibiotics. Data demonstrate that the β-lactam antibiotic oxacillin, generally regarded as ineffective against Gram-negative bacteria, can be potentiated by 600 Da BPEI to kill some Escherichia coli and some Klebsiella pneumoniae. Modification of 600 Da BPEI with polyethylene glycol (PEG) could increase drug safety and improves potentiation activity. The ability to use the Gram-positive agent, oxacillin, against Gram-negative pathogens could expand the capability to deliver effective treatments that simplify, reduce, or eliminate some complicated treatment regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra L Wouters
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, United States of America
| | - Neda Heydarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Pusavat
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, United States of America
| | - Hannah Panlilio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, United States of America
| | - Anh K Lam
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, United States of America
| | - Erika L Moen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, United States of America
| | - Robert E Brennan
- Department of Biology, University of Central Oklahoma, 100 North University Drive, Edmond, OK 73034, United States of America
| | - Charles V Rice
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, United States of America.
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6
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Mayorga-Martinez CC, Zelenka J, Klima K, Kubanova M, Ruml T, Pumera M. Multimodal-Driven Magnetic Microrobots with Enhanced Bactericidal Activity for Biofilm Eradication and Removal from Titanium Mesh. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2300191. [PMID: 36995927 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202300191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Modern micro/nanorobots can perform multiple tasks for biomedical and environmental applications. Particularly, magnetic microrobots can be completely controlled by a rotating magnetic field and their motion powered and controlled without the use of toxic fuels, which makes them most promising for biomedical application. Moreover, they are able to form swarms, allowing them to perform specific tasks at a larger scale than a single microrobot. In this work, they developed magnetic microrobots composed of halloysite nanotubes as backbone and iron oxide (Fe3 O4 ) nanoparticles as magnetic material allowing magnetic propulsion and covered these with polyethylenimine to load ampicillin and prevent the microrobots from disassembling. These microrobots exhibit multimodal motion as single robots as well as in swarms. In addition, they can transform from tumbling to spinning motion and vice-versa, and when in swarm mode they can change their motion from vortex to ribbon and back again. Finally, the vortex motion mode is used to penetrate and disrupt the extracellular matrix of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm colonized on titanium mesh used for bone restoration, which improves the effect of the antibiotic's activity. Such magnetic microrobots for biofilm removal from medical implants could reduce implant rejection and improve patients' well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen C Mayorga-Martinez
- Center for Advanced Functional Nanorobots, Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, Prague, 166 28, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Zelenka
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, Prague, 166 28, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Klima
- Department of Stomatology - Maxillofacial Surgery, General Teaching Hospital and First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, 12808, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Kubanova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, Prague, 166 28, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, Prague, 166 28, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Pumera
- Center for Advanced Functional Nanorobots, Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, Prague, 166 28, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and, Computer Science, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172/15, Ostrava, 70800, Czech Republic
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, No. 91 Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan
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7
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Moen EL, Lam AK, Pusavat J, Wouters CL, Panlilio H, Heydarian N, Peng Z, Lan Y, Rice CV. Dimerization of 600 Da branched polyethylenimine improves β-lactam antibiotic potentiation against antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chem Biol Drug Des 2023; 101:489-499. [PMID: 34923750 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.14009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is a growing concern in the medical field. Drug-susceptible infections are often treated with β-lactam antibiotics, which bind to enzymes known as penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). When the PBPs are disabled, the integrity of the cell wall is compromised, leading to cell lysis. Resistance renders β-lactam antibiotics ineffective, and clinicians turn to be more effective, but often more toxic, antibiotics. An alternative approach is combining antibiotics with compounds that disable resistance mechanisms. Previously, we have shown that low-molecular-weight 600 Da branched polyethylenimine restores β-lactam susceptibility to Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens with antibiotic resistance. In this study, this approach is extended to the homodimers of 600 Da BPEI that have improved potentiation properties compared to monomers of 600 Da BPEI and 1200 Da BPEI. The homodimers are synthesized by linking two 600 Da BPEI molecules with methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA). The resulting product was characterized with FTIR spectroscopy, 1 H NMR spectroscopy, checkerboard microbroth dilution assays, and cell toxicity assays. These data show that the 600 Da BPEI homodimer is more effective than 1200 Da BPEI toward the potentiation of oxacillin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis and the potentiation of piperacillin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik L Moen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Anh K Lam
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Jennifer Pusavat
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Cassandra L Wouters
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Hannah Panlilio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Neda Heydarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Zongkai Peng
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Yunpeng Lan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Charles V Rice
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
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8
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Advancement and future perspectives on ampicillin-loaded antimicrobial polymers- A review. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2023.104227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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9
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Yang XC, Zeng CM, Avula SR, Peng XM, Geng RX, Zhou CH. Novel coumarin aminophosphonates as potential multitargeting antibacterial agents against Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 245:114891. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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10
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Panlilio H, Neel A, Heydarian N, Best W, Atkins I, Boris A, Bui M, Dick C, Ferrell M, Gu T, Haight T, Roedl CC, Rice CV. Antibiofilm Activity of PEGylated Branched Polyethylenimine. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:44825-44835. [PMID: 36530285 PMCID: PMC9753512 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c04911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Biofilm formation is an adaptive resistance mechanism that pathogens employ to survive in the presence of antimicrobials. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an infectious Gram-negative bacterium whose biofilm allows it to withstand antimicrobial attack and threaten human health. Chronic wound healing is often impeded by P. aeruginosa infections and the associated biofilms. Previous findings demonstrate that 600 Da branched polyethylenimine (BPEI) can restore β-lactam potency against P. aeruginosa and disrupt its biofilms. Toxicity concerns of 600 Da BPEI are mitigated by covalent linkage with low-molecular-weight polyethylene glycol (PEG), and, in this study, PEGylated BPEI (PEG350-BPEI) was found exhibit superior antibiofilm activity against P. aeruginosa. The antibiofilm activity of both 600 Da BPEI and its PEG derivative was characterized with fluorescence studies and microscopy imaging. We also describe a variation of the colony biofilm model that was employed to evaluate the biofilm disruption activity of BPEI and PEG-BPEI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Panlilio
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Andrew Neel
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Neda Heydarian
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - William Best
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Isaac Atkins
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Andrew Boris
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Maggie Bui
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Catherine Dick
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Maya Ferrell
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Tingting Gu
- Department
of Biology, University of Oklahoma, 730 Van Vleet Oval, Room 314, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Tristan Haight
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Chase C. Roedl
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
| | - Charles V. Rice
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73069, United States
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11
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Bai X, Wang Z, Li W, Xiao F, Huang J, Xu Q, Xu H. Rapid and accurate detection for Listeria monocytogenes in milk using ampicillin-mediated magnetic separation coupled with quantitative real-time PCR. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.108063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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12
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Kebriaei R, Lev KL, Shah RM, Stamper KC, Holger DJ, Morrisette T, Kunz Coyne AJ, Lehman SM, Rybak MJ. Eradication of Biofilm-Mediated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections In Vitro: Bacteriophage-Antibiotic Combination. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0041122. [PMID: 35348366 PMCID: PMC9045164 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00411-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial biofilms are difficult to eradicate and can complicate many infections by forming on tissues and medical devices. Phage+antibiotic combinations (PAC) may be more active on biofilms than either type of agent alone, but it is difficult to predict which PAC regimens will be reliably effective. To establish a method for screening PAC combinations against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms, we conducted biofilm time-kill analyses (TKA) using various combinations of phage Sb-1 with clinically relevant antibiotics. We determined the activity of PAC against biofilm versus planktonic bacteria and investigated the emergence of resistance during (24 h) exposure to PAC. As expected, fewer treatment regimens were effective against biofilm than planktonic bacteria. In experiments with isogenic strain pairs, we also saw less activity of PACs against DNS-VISA mutants versus their respective parentals. The most effective treatment against both biofilm and planktonic bacteria was the phage+daptomycin+ceftaroline regimen, which met our stringent definition of bactericidal activity (>3 log10 CFU/mL reduction). With the VISA-DNS strain 8015 and DNS strain 684, we detected anti-biofilm synergy between Sb-1 and DAP in the phage+daptomycin regimen (>2 log10 CFU/mL reduction versus best single agent). We did not observe any bacterial resensitization to antibiotics following treatment, but phage resistance was avoided after exposure to PAC regimens for all tested strains. The release of bacterial membrane vesicles tended to be either unaffected or reduced by the various treatment regimens. Interestingly, phage yields from certain biofilm experiments were greater than from similar planktonic experiments, suggesting that Sb-1 might be more efficiently propagated on biofilm. IMPORTANCE Biofilm-associated multidrug-resistant infections pose significant challenges for antibiotic therapy. The extracellular polymeric matrix of biofilms presents an impediment for antibiotic diffusion, facilitating the emergence of multidrug-resistant populations. Some bacteriophages (phages) can move across the biofilm matrix, degrade it, and support antibiotic penetration. However, little is known about how phages and their hosts interact in the biofilm environment or how different phage+antibiotic combinations (PACs) impact biofilms in comparison to the planktonic state of bacteria, though scattered data suggest that phage+antibiotic synergy occurs more readily under biofilm-like conditions. Our results demonstrated that phage Sb-1 can infect MRSA strains both in biofilm and planktonic states and suggested PAC regimens worthy of further investigation as adjuncts to antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Razieh Kebriaei
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Katherine L. Lev
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Rahi M. Shah
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Kyle C. Stamper
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Dana J. Holger
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Taylor Morrisette
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Ashlan J. Kunz Coyne
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Susan M. Lehman
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Michael J. Rybak
- Anti-Infective Research Laboratory, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
- School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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13
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Shaban TF, Alkawareek MY. Prediction of qualitative antibiofilm activity of antibiotics using supervised machine learning techniques. Comput Biol Med 2022; 140:105065. [PMID: 34839184 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.105065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Although biofilm-specific antibiotic susceptibility assays are available, they are time-consuming and resource-intensive, and hence they are not usually performed in clinical settings. Herein, we introduce a machine learning-based predictive modeling approach that uses routinely available and easily accessible data to qualitatively predict in vitro antibiofilm activity of antibiotics with relatively high accuracy. Three optimized models based on logistic regression, decision tree, and random forest algorithms were successfully developed in this study using data manually collected from published literature. In these models, independent variables that serve as significant predictors of antibiofilm activity are minimum inhibitory concentration, bacterial Gram type, biofilm formation method, in addition to antibiotic's mechanism of action, molecular weight, and pKa. The cross-validation method showed that the optimized models exhibit prediction accuracy of 67% ± 6.1% for the logistic regression model, 73% ± 5.8% for the decision tree model, and 74% ± 5% for the random forest model. However, the one-way ANOVA test revealed that the difference in prediction accuracy between the 3 models is not statistically significant, and hence they can be considered to have comparable performance. The presented modeling approach can serve as an alternative to the resource-intensive biofilm assays to rapidly and properly manage biofilm-associated infections, especially in resource-limited clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taqwa F Shaban
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
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14
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Wang J, Ansari MF, Lin J, Zhou C. Design and Synthesis of Sulfanilamide Aminophosphonates as Novel Antibacterial Agents towards
Escherichia coli. CHINESE J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.202100165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Wang
- Institute of Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 China
| | - Mohammad Fawad Ansari
- Institute of Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 China
| | - Jian‐Mei Lin
- School of Medicine University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu Sichuan 610072 China
| | - Cheng‐He Zhou
- Institute of Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 China
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15
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Panlilio H, Lam AK, Heydarian N, Haight T, Wouters CL, Moen EL, Rice CV. Dual-Function Potentiation by PEG-BPEI Restores Activity of Carbapenems and Penicillins against Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:1657-1665. [PMID: 33945257 PMCID: PMC8689638 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The rise of life-threatening carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) infections has become a critical medical threat. Some of the most dangerous CRE bacteria can produce enzymes that degrade a wide range of antibiotics, including carbapenems and β-lactams. Infections by CRE have a high mortality rate, and survivors can have severe morbidity from treatment with toxic last-resort antibiotics. CRE have mobile genetic elements that transfer resistance genes to other species. These bacteria also circulate throughout the healthcare system. The mobility and spread of CRE need to be curtailed, but these goals are impeded by having few agents that target a limited range of pathogenic CRE species. Against CRE possessing the metallo-β-lactamase NDM-1, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC BAA-2146 and Escherichia coli ATCC BAA-2452, the potentiation of meropenem and imipenem is possible with low-molecular weight branched polyethylenimine (600 Da BPEI) and its poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)ylated derivative (PEG-BPEI) that has a low in vivo toxicity. The mechanism of action is elucidated with fluorescence assays of drug influx and isothermal calorimetry data showing the chelation of essential Zn2+ ions. These results suggested that 600 Da BPEI and PEG-BPEI may also improve the uptake of antibiotics and β-lactamase inhibitors. Indeed, the CRE E. coli strain is rendered susceptible to the combination of piperacillin and tazobactam. These results expand the possible utility of 600 Da BPEI potentiators, where previously we have demonstrated the ability to improve antibiotic efficacy against antibiotic resistant clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Panlilio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Anh K Lam
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Neda Heydarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Tristan Haight
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Cassandra L Wouters
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Erika L Moen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Charles V Rice
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
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16
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Fisher JF, Mobashery S. β-Lactams against the Fortress of the Gram-Positive Staphylococcus aureus Bacterium. Chem Rev 2021; 121:3412-3463. [PMID: 33373523 PMCID: PMC8653850 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The biological diversity of the unicellular bacteria-whether assessed by shape, food, metabolism, or ecological niche-surely rivals (if not exceeds) that of the multicellular eukaryotes. The relationship between bacteria whose ecological niche is the eukaryote, and the eukaryote, is often symbiosis or stasis. Some bacteria, however, seek advantage in this relationship. One of the most successful-to the disadvantage of the eukaryote-is the small (less than 1 μm diameter) and nearly spherical Staphylococcus aureus bacterium. For decades, successful clinical control of its infection has been accomplished using β-lactam antibiotics such as the penicillins and the cephalosporins. Over these same decades S. aureus has perfected resistance mechanisms against these antibiotics, which are then countered by new generations of β-lactam structure. This review addresses the current breadth of biochemical and microbiological efforts to preserve the future of the β-lactam antibiotics through a better understanding of how S. aureus protects the enzyme targets of the β-lactams, the penicillin-binding proteins. The penicillin-binding proteins are essential enzyme catalysts for the biosynthesis of the cell wall, and understanding how this cell wall is integrated into the protective cell envelope of the bacterium may identify new antibacterials and new adjuvants that preserve the efficacy of the β-lactams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jed F Fisher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, McCourtney Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Shahriar Mobashery
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, McCourtney Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame Indiana 46556, United States
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17
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Lam AK, Moen EL, Pusavat J, Wouters CL, Panlilio H, Ferrell MJ, Houck MB, Glatzhofer DT, Rice CV. PEGylation of Polyethylenimine Lowers Acute Toxicity while Retaining Anti-Biofilm and β-Lactam Potentiation Properties against Antibiotic-Resistant Pathogens. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:26262-26270. [PMID: 33073153 PMCID: PMC7557992 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c04111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial biofilms, often impenetrable to antibiotic medications, are a leading cause of poor wound healing. The prognosis is worse for wounds with biofilms of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis (MRSE), and multi-drug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDR-PA). Resistance hinders initial treatment of standard-of-care antibiotics. The persistence of MRSA, MRSE, and/or MDR-PA often allows acute infections to become chronic wound infections. The water-soluble hydrophilic properties of low-molecular-weight (600 Da) branched polyethylenimine (600 Da BPEI) enable easy drug delivery to directly attack AMR and biofilms in the wound environment as a topical agent for wound treatment. To mitigate toxicity issues, we have modified 600 Da BPEI with polyethylene glycol (PEG) in a straightforward one-step reaction. The PEG-BPEI molecules disable β-lactam resistance in MRSA, MRSE, and MDR-PA while also having the ability to dissolve established biofilms. PEG-BPEI accomplishes these tasks independently, resulting in a multifunction potentiation agent. We envision wound treatment with antibiotics given topically, orally, or intravenously in which external application of PEG-BPEIs disables biofilms and resistance mechanisms. In the absence of a robust pipeline of new drugs, existing drugs and regimens must be re-evaluated as combination(s) with potentiators. The PEGylation of 600 Da BPEI provides new opportunities to meet this goal with a single compound whose multifunction properties are retained while lowering acute toxicity.
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18
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Lam AK, Panlilio H, Pusavat J, Wouters CL, Moen EL, Brennan RE, Rice CV. Expanding the Spectrum of Antibiotics Capable of Killing Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. ChemMedChem 2020; 15:1421-1428. [PMID: 32497366 PMCID: PMC7485129 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Infections from antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are a serious threat because reduced antibiotic efficacy complicates treatment decisions and prolongs the disease state in many patients. To expand the arsenal of treatments against antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) pathogens, 600-Da branched polyethylenimine (BPEI) can overcome antibiotic resistance mechanisms and potentiate β-lactam antibiotics against Gram-positive bacteria. BPEI binds cell-wall teichoic acids and disables resistance factors from penicillin binding proteins PBP2a and PBP4. This study describes a new mechanism of action for BPEI potentiation of antibiotics generally regarded as agents effective against Gram-positive pathogens but not Gram-negative bacteria. 600-Da BPEI is able to reduce the barriers to drug influx and facilitate the uptake of a non-β-lactam co-drug, erythromycin, which targets the intracellular machinery. Also, BPEI can suppress production of the cytokine interleukin IL-8 by human epithelial keratinocytes. This enables BPEI to function as a broad-spectrum antibiotic potentiator, and expands the opportunities to improve drug design, antibiotic development, and therapeutic approaches against pathogenic bacteria, especially for wound care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh K Lam
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Hannah Panlilio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Jennifer Pusavat
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Cassandra L Wouters
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Erika L Moen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Robert E Brennan
- Department of Biology, University of Central Oklahoma, 100 North University Drive, Edmond, OK 73034, USA
| | - Charles V Rice
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
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