1
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Liffner B, Absalon S. Expansion microscopy of apicomplexan parasites. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:619-635. [PMID: 37571814 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites comprise significant pathogens of humans, livestock and wildlife, but also represent a diverse group of eukaryotes with interesting and unique cell biology. The study of cell biology in apicomplexan parasites is complicated by their small size, and historically this has required the application of cutting-edge microscopy techniques to investigate fundamental processes like mitosis or cell division in these organisms. Recently, a technique called expansion microscopy has been developed, which rather than increasing instrument resolution like most imaging modalities, physically expands a biological sample. In only a few years since its development, a derivative of expansion microscopy known as ultrastructure-expansion microscopy (U-ExM) has been widely adopted and proven extremely useful for studying cell biology of Apicomplexa. Here, we review the insights into apicomplexan cell biology that have been enabled through the use of U-ExM, with a specific focus on Plasmodium, Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium. Further, we summarize emerging expansion microscopy modifications and modalities and forecast how these may influence the field of parasite cell biology in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Liffner
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Sabrina Absalon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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2
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Yeh YT, Del Álamo JC, Caffrey CR. Biomechanics of parasite migration within hosts. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:164-175. [PMID: 38172015 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The dissemination of protozoan and metazoan parasites through host tissues is hindered by cellular barriers, dense extracellular matrices, and fluid forces in the bloodstream. To overcome these diverse biophysical impediments, parasites implement versatile migratory strategies. Parasite-exerted mechanical forces and upregulation of the host's cellular contractile machinery are the motors for these strategies, and these are comparably better characterized for protozoa than for helminths. Using the examples of the protozoans, Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium, and the metazoan, Schistosoma mansoni, we highlight how quantitative tools such as traction force and reflection interference contrast microscopies have improved our understanding of how parasites alter host mechanobiology to promote their migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Yeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
| | - Juan C Del Álamo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Division of Cardiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 93093, USA
| | - Conor R Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC0657, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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3
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Chan AW, Broncel M, Yifrach E, Haseley NR, Chakladar S, Andree E, Herneisen AL, Shortt E, Treeck M, Lourido S. Analysis of CDPK1 targets identifies a trafficking adaptor complex that regulates microneme exocytosis in Toxoplasma. eLife 2023; 12:RP85654. [PMID: 37933960 PMCID: PMC10629828 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites use Ca2+-regulated exocytosis to secrete essential virulence factors from specialized organelles called micronemes. Ca2+-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are required for microneme exocytosis; however, the molecular events that regulate trafficking and fusion of micronemes with the plasma membrane remain unresolved. Here, we combine sub-minute resolution phosphoproteomics and bio-orthogonal labeling of kinase substrates in Toxoplasma gondii to identify 163 proteins phosphorylated in a CDPK1-dependent manner. In addition to known regulators of secretion, we identify uncharacterized targets with predicted functions across signaling, gene expression, trafficking, metabolism, and ion homeostasis. One of the CDPK1 targets is a putative HOOK activating adaptor. In other eukaryotes, HOOK homologs form the FHF complex with FTS and FHIP to activate dynein-mediated trafficking of endosomes along microtubules. We show the FHF complex is partially conserved in T. gondii, consisting of HOOK, an FTS homolog, and two parasite-specific proteins (TGGT1_306920 and TGGT1_316650). CDPK1 kinase activity and HOOK are required for the rapid apical trafficking of micronemes as parasites initiate motility. Moreover, parasites lacking HOOK or FTS display impaired microneme protein secretion, leading to a block in the invasion of host cells. Taken together, our work provides a comprehensive catalog of CDPK1 targets and reveals how vesicular trafficking has been tuned to support a parasitic lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex W Chan
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Malgorzata Broncel
- Signaling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Eden Yifrach
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Nicole R Haseley
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | | | - Elena Andree
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Alice L Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Emily Shortt
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Moritz Treeck
- Signaling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
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4
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Vigetti L, Tardieux I. Fostering innovation to solve the biomechanics of microbe-host interactions: Focus on the adhesive forces underlying Apicomplexa parasite biology. Biol Cell 2023; 115:e202300016. [PMID: 37227253 DOI: 10.1111/boc.202300016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The protozoa, Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp., are preeminent members of the Apicomplexa parasitic phylum in large part due to their public health and economic impact. Hence, they serve as model unicellular eukaryotes with which to explore the repertoire of molecular and cellular strategies that specific developmental morphotypes deploy to timely adjust to their host(s) in order to perpetuate. In particular, host tissue- and cell-invasive morphotypes termed zoites alternate extracellular and intracellular lifestyles, thereby sensing and reacting to a wealth of host-derived biomechanical cues over their partnership. In the recent years, biophysical tools especially related to real time force measurement have been introduced, teaching us how creative are these microbes to shape a unique motility system that powers fast gliding through a variety of extracellular matrices, across cellular barriers, in vascular systems or into host cells. Equally performant was this toolkit to start illuminating how parasites manipulate their hosting cell adhesive and rheological properties to their advantage. In this review, besides highlighting major discoveries along the way, we discuss the most promising development, synergy, and multimodal integration in active noninvasive force microscopy methods. These should in the near future unlock current limitations and allow capturing, from molecules to tissues, the many biomechanical and biophysical interplays over the dynamic host and microbe partnership.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Vigetti
- Team Biomechanics of Host-Parasite Interactions, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, CNRS UMR5309, INSERM U1209, University of Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Isabelle Tardieux
- Team Biomechanics of Host-Parasite Interactions, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, CNRS UMR5309, INSERM U1209, University of Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
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5
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Tengganu IF, Arias Padilla LF, Munera Lopez J, Liu J, Brown PT, Murray JM, Hu K. The cortical microtubules of Toxoplasma gondii underlie the helicity of parasite movement. J Cell Sci 2023; 136:jcs261270. [PMID: 37675776 PMCID: PMC10499027 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.261270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Motility is essential for apicomplexan parasites to infect their hosts. In a three-dimensional (3D) environment, the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii moves along a helical path. The cortical microtubules, which are ultra-stable and spirally arranged, have been considered to be a structure that guides the long-distance movement of the parasite. Here, we address the role of the cortical microtubules in parasite motility, invasion and egress by utilizing a previously generated mutant (dubbed 'TKO') in which these microtubules are destabilized in mature parasites. We found that the cortical microtubules in ∼80% of the non-dividing (i.e. daughter-free) TKO parasites are much shorter than normal. The extent of depolymerization was further exacerbated upon commencement of daughter formation or cold treatment, but parasite replication was not affected. In a 3D Matrigel matrix, the TKO mutant moved directionally over long distances, but along trajectories that were significantly more linear (i.e. less helical) than those of wild-type parasites. Interestingly, this change in trajectory did not impact either movement speed in the matrix or the speed and behavior of the parasite during entry into and egress from the host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isadonna F. Tengganu
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85284, USA
| | - Luisa F. Arias Padilla
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85284, USA
| | - Jonathan Munera Lopez
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85284, USA
| | - Jun Liu
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, ID 47405, USA
| | - Peter T. Brown
- Department of Physics and Center for Biological Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85284, USA
| | - John M. Murray
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85284, USA
| | - Ke Hu
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85284, USA
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6
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Tengganu IF, Padilla LFA, Lopez JM, Liu J, Brown PT, Murray JM, Hu K. The cortical microtubules of Toxoplasma gondii underlie the helicity of parasite movement. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.23.538011. [PMID: 37162829 PMCID: PMC10168230 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.23.538011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Motility is essential for apicomplexan parasites to infect their hosts. In a three-dimensional (3-D) environment, the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii moves along a helical path. The cortical microtubules, which are ultra-stable and spirally arranged, have been considered to be a structure that guides the long-distance movement of the parasite. Here we address the role of the cortical microtubules in parasite motility, invasion, and egress by utilizing a previously generated mutant (dubbed "TKO") in which these microtubules are destabilized in mature parasites. We found that the cortical microtubules in ~ 80% of the non-dividing (i.e. daughter-free) TKO parasites are much shorter than normal. The extent of depolymerization is further exacerbated upon commencement of daughter formation or cold treatment, but parasite replication is not affected. In a 3-D Matrigel matrix, the TKO mutant moves directionally over long distances, but along trajectories significantly more linear (i.e. less helical) than those of wild-type parasites. Interestingly, this change in trajectory does not impact either movement speed in the matrix or the speed and behavior of the parasite's entry into and egress from the host cell.
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7
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Cooper C, Thompson RCA, Clode PL. Investigating parasites in three dimensions: trends in volume microscopy. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:668-681. [PMID: 37302958 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
To best understand parasite, host, and vector morphologies, host-parasite interactions, and to develop new drug and vaccine targets, structural data should, ideally, be obtained and visualised in three dimensions (3D). Recently, there has been a significant uptake of available 3D volume microscopy techniques that allow collection of data across centimetre (cm) to Angstrom (Å) scales by utilising light, X-ray, electron, and ion sources. Here, we present and discuss microscopy tools available for the collection of 3D structural data, focussing on electron microscopy-based techniques. We highlight their strengths and limitations, such that parasitologists can identify techniques best suited to answer their research questions. Additionally, we review the importance of volume microscopy to the advancement of the field of parasitology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal Cooper
- Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation, and Analysis, University of Western Australia, Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
| | - R C Andrew Thompson
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
| | - Peta L Clode
- Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation, and Analysis, University of Western Australia, Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
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Kelsen A, Kent RS, Snyder AK, Wehri E, Bishop SJ, Stadler RV, Powell C, Martorelli di Genova B, Rompikuntal PK, Boulanger MJ, Warshaw DM, Westwood NJ, Schaletzky J, Ward GE. MyosinA is a druggable target in the widespread protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS Biol 2023; 21:e3002110. [PMID: 37155705 PMCID: PMC10185354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread apicomplexan parasite that can cause severe disease in its human hosts. The ability of T. gondii and other apicomplexan parasites to invade into, egress from, and move between cells of the hosts they infect is critical to parasite virulence and disease progression. An unusual and highly conserved parasite myosin motor (TgMyoA) plays a central role in T. gondii motility. The goal of this work was to determine whether the parasite's motility and lytic cycle can be disrupted through pharmacological inhibition of TgMyoA, as an approach to altering disease progression in vivo. To this end, we first sought to identify inhibitors of TgMyoA by screening a collection of 50,000 structurally diverse small molecules for inhibitors of the recombinant motor's actin-activated ATPase activity. The top hit to emerge from the screen, KNX-002, inhibited TgMyoA with little to no effect on any of the vertebrate myosins tested. KNX-002 was also active against parasites, inhibiting parasite motility and growth in culture in a dose-dependent manner. We used chemical mutagenesis, selection in KNX-002, and targeted sequencing to identify a mutation in TgMyoA (T130A) that renders the recombinant motor less sensitive to compound. Compared to wild-type parasites, parasites expressing the T130A mutation showed reduced sensitivity to KNX-002 in motility and growth assays, confirming TgMyoA as a biologically relevant target of KNX-002. Finally, we present evidence that KNX-002 can slow disease progression in mice infected with wild-type parasites, but not parasites expressing the resistance-conferring TgMyoA T130A mutation. Taken together, these data demonstrate the specificity of KNX-002 for TgMyoA, both in vitro and in vivo, and validate TgMyoA as a druggable target in infections with T. gondii. Since TgMyoA is essential for virulence, conserved in apicomplexan parasites, and distinctly different from the myosins found in humans, pharmacological inhibition of MyoA offers a promising new approach to treating the devastating diseases caused by T. gondii and other apicomplexan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Kelsen
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Robyn S. Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Anne K. Snyder
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Eddie Wehri
- Center for Emerging and Neglected Diseases, University of California Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Stephen J. Bishop
- School of Chemistry and Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews and EaStCHEM, St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel V. Stadler
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Cameron Powell
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Bruno Martorelli di Genova
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Pramod K. Rompikuntal
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Martin J. Boulanger
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - David M. Warshaw
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. Westwood
- School of Chemistry and Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews and EaStCHEM, St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Julia Schaletzky
- Center for Emerging and Neglected Diseases, University of California Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Gary E. Ward
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
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Laporte MH, Bertiaux É, Hamel V, Guichard P. [Closer to the native architecture of the cell using Cryo-ExM]. Med Sci (Paris) 2023; 39:351-358. [PMID: 37094268 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/2023052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Most cellular imaging techniques, such as light or electron microscopy, require that the biological sample is first fixed by chemical cross-linking agents. This necessary step is also known to damage molecular nanostructures or even sub-cellular organization. To overcome this problem, another fixation approach was invented more than 40 years ago, which consists in cryo-fixing biological samples, thus allowing to preserve their native state. However, this method has been scarcely used in light microscopy due to the complexity of its implementation. In this review, we present a recently developed super-resolution method called expansion microscopy, which, when coupled with cryo-fixation, allows to visualize at a nanometric resolution the cell architecture as close as possible to its native state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine H Laporte
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Université de Genève, 30 quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Genève, Suisse
| | - Éloïse Bertiaux
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Université de Genève, 30 quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Genève, Suisse
| | - Virginie Hamel
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Université de Genève, 30 quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Genève, Suisse
| | - Paul Guichard
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Université de Genève, 30 quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Genève, Suisse
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Roumégous C, Abou Hammoud A, Fuster D, Dupuy JW, Blancard C, Salin B, Robinson DR, Renesto P, Tardieux I, Frénal K. Identification of new components of the basal pole of Toxoplasma gondii provides novel insights into its molecular organization and functions. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1010038. [PMID: 36310866 PMCID: PMC9613666 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1010038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoite is a singled-cell obligate intracellular parasite responsible for the acute phase of toxoplasmosis. This polarized cell exhibits an apical complex, a hallmark of the phylum Apicomplexa, essential for motility, invasion, and egress from the host cell. Located on the opposite end of the cell is the basal complex, an elaborated cytoskeletal structure that also plays critical roles in the lytic cycle of the parasite, being involved in motility, cell division, constriction and cytokinesis, as well as intravacuolar cell-cell communication. Nevertheless, only a few proteins of this structure have been described and functionally assessed. In this study, we used spatial proteomics to identify new basal complex components (BCC), and in situ imaging, including ultrastructure expansion microscopy, to position them. We thus confirmed the localization of nine BCCs out of the 12 selected candidates and assigned them to different sub-compartments of the basal complex, including two new domains located above the basal ring and below the posterior cup. Their functional investigation revealed that none of these BCCs are essential for parasite growth in vitro. However, one BCC is critical for constricting of the basal complex, likely through direct interaction with the class VI myosin heavy chain J (MyoJ), and for gliding motility. Four other BCCs, including a phosphatase and a guanylate-binding protein, are involved in the formation and/or maintenance of the intravacuolar parasite connection, which is required for the rosette organization and synchronicity of cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Roumégous
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité, UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Aya Abou Hammoud
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité, UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Damien Fuster
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité, UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Corinne Blancard
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Institut de Biochimie et Génétique Cellulaires, UMR 5095, Bordeaux, France
| | - Bénédicte Salin
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Institut de Biochimie et Génétique Cellulaires, UMR 5095, Bordeaux, France
| | - Derrick R. Robinson
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité, UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Patricia Renesto
- IAB, Team Biomechanics of Host-Apicomplexa Parasite, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR5309, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble, France
| | - Isabelle Tardieux
- IAB, Team Biomechanics of Host-Apicomplexa Parasite, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR5309, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble, France
| | - Karine Frénal
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité, UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
- *Correspondence: Karine Frénal,
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11
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Dos Santos Pacheco N, Brusini L, Haase R, Tosetti N, Maco B, Brochet M, Vadas O, Soldati-Favre D. Conoid extrusion regulates glideosome assembly to control motility and invasion in Apicomplexa. Nat Microbiol 2022; 7:1777-1790. [DOI: 10.1038/s41564-022-01212-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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12
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Odendall C, Sa Pessoa J, Mesquita FS. Meeting report - Cell dynamics: host-pathogen interface. J Cell Sci 2022; 135:276364. [PMID: 35979931 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.260456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Two years into the most significant infectious disease event of our generation, infections have populated every conversation and in-depth understanding of host-pathogen interactions has, perhaps, never been more important. In a successful return to in-person conferences, the host-pathogen interface was the focus of the third Cell Dynamics meeting, which took place at the glorious Wotton House in Surrey, UK. The meeting organised by Michaela Gack, Maximiliano Gutierrez, Dominique Soldati-Favre and Michael Way gathered an international group of scientists who shared their recent discoveries and views on numerous aspects, including cell-autonomous defence mechanisms, pathogen interactions with host cytoskeletal or membrane dynamics, and cellular immune regulation. More than 30 years into the beginning of cellular microbiology as a field, the meeting exhibited the unique aspect of the host-pathogen interface in uncovering the fundamentals of both pathogens and their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Odendall
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, SE1 9RT London, UK
| | - Joana Sa Pessoa
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, BT9 7BL Belfast, UK
| | - Francisco S Mesquita
- Global Health Institute, School of Life Sciences, EPFL, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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13
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Kim H, Hong SH, Jeong HE, Han S, Ahn J, Kim JA, Yang JH, Oh HJ, Chung S, Lee SE. Microfluidic model for in vitro acute Toxoplasma gondii infection and transendothelial migration. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11449. [PMID: 35794197 PMCID: PMC9259589 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15305-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) causes one of the most common human zoonotic diseases and infects approximately one-third of the global population. T. gondii infects nearly every cell type and causes severe symptoms in susceptible populations. In previous laboratory animal studies, T. gondii movement and transmission were not analyzed in real time. In a three-dimensional (3D) microfluidic assay, we successfully supported the complex lytic cycle of T. gondii in situ by generating a stable microvasculature. The physiology of the T. gondii-infected microvasculature was monitored in order to investigate the growth, paracellular and transcellular migration, and transmission of T. gondii, as well as the efficacy of T. gondii drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunho Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sung-Hee Hong
- Division of Vectors and Parasitic Diseases, Korea Diseases Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Eun Jeong
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Jinchul Ahn
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-A Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Hyun Jeong Oh
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Seok Chung
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sang-Eun Lee
- Division of Vectors and Parasitic Diseases, Korea Diseases Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, Republic of Korea.
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14
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The BCC7 Protein Contributes to the Toxoplasma Basal Pole by Interfacing between the MyoC Motor and the IMC Membrane Network. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23115995. [PMID: 35682673 PMCID: PMC9181098 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23115995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
T. gondii is a eukaryotic parasite that has evolved a stage called tachyzoite which multiplies in host cells by producing two daughter cells internally. These nascent tachyzoites bud off their mother and repeat the division process until the expanding progenies escape to settle and multiply in other host cells. Over these intra- and extra-cellular phases, the tachyzoite maintains an essential apicobasal polarity that emerges through a unique bidirectional budding process of the elongating cells. This process requires the assembly of several molecular complexes that, at the nascent pole, encompass structural and myosin motor elements. To characterize a recently identified basal pole marker named BCC7 with respect to the posterior myosin J and myosin C motors, we used conventional biochemistry as well as advanced proteomic and in silico analysis in conjunction with live and super resolution microscopy of transgenic fluorescent tachyzoites. We document that BCC7 forms a ribbed ring below which myosin C motor entities distribute regularly. In addition, we identified—among 13 BCC7 putative partners—two novel and five known members of the inner membrane complex (IMC) family which ends at the apical side of the ring. Therefore, BCC7 could assist the stabilization of the IMC plaques and contribute to the parasite biomechanical properties.
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15
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Transcending Dimensions in Apicomplexan Research: from Two-Dimensional to Three-Dimensional In Vitro Cultures. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2022; 86:e0002522. [PMID: 35412359 PMCID: PMC9199416 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00025-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites belonging to the Apicomplexa phylum are among the most successful pathogens known in nature. They can infect a wide range of hosts, often remain undetected by the immune system, and cause acute and chronic illness. In this phylum, we can find parasites of human and veterinary health relevance, such as Toxoplasma, Plasmodium, Cryptosporidium, and Eimeria. There are still many unknowns about the biology of these pathogens due to the ethical and practical issues of performing research in their natural hosts. Animal models are often difficult or nonexistent, and as a result, there are apicomplexan life cycle stages that have not been studied. One recent alternative has been the use of three-dimensional (3D) systems such as organoids, 3D scaffolds with different matrices, microfluidic devices, organs-on-a-chip, and other tissue culture models. These 3D systems have facilitated and expanded the research of apicomplexans, allowing us to explore life stages that were previously out of reach and experimental procedures that were practically impossible to perform in animal models. Human- and animal-derived 3D systems can be obtained from different organs, allowing us to model host-pathogen interactions for diagnostic methods and vaccine development, drug testing, exploratory biology, and other applications. In this review, we summarize the most recent advances in the use of 3D systems applied to apicomplexans. We show the wide array of strategies that have been successfully used so far and apply them to explore other organisms that have been less studied.
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16
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Stadler RV, Nelson SR, Warshaw DM, Ward GE. A circular zone of attachment to the extracellular matrix provides directionality to the motility of Toxoplasma gondii in 3D. eLife 2022; 11:85171. [PMID: 36519527 PMCID: PMC9839348 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects 30-40% of the world's population. Infections are typically subclinical but can be severe and, in some cases, life threatening. Central to the virulence of T. gondii is an unusual form of substrate-dependent motility that enables the parasite to invade cells of its host and to disseminate throughout the body. A hetero-oligomeric complex of proteins that functions in motility has been characterized, but how these proteins work together to drive forward motion of the parasite remains controversial. A key piece of information needed to understand the underlying mechanism(s) is the directionality of the forces that a moving parasite exerts on the external environment. The linear motor model of motility, which has dominated the field for the past two decades, predicts continuous anterior-to-posterior force generation along the length of the parasite. We show here using three-dimensional traction force mapping that the predominant forces exerted by a moving parasite are instead periodic and directed in toward the parasite at a fixed circular location within the extracellular matrix. These highly localized forces, which are generated by the parasite pulling on the matrix, create a visible constriction in the parasite's plasma membrane. We propose that the ring of inward-directed force corresponds to a circumferential attachment zone between the parasite and the matrix, through which the parasite propels itself to move forward. The combined data suggest a closer connection between the mechanisms underlying parasite motility and host cell invasion than previously recognized. In parasites lacking the major surface adhesin, TgMIC2, neither the inward-directed forces nor the constriction of the parasite membrane are observed. The trajectories of the TgMIC2-deficient parasites are less straight than those of wild-type parasites, suggesting that the annular zone of TgMIC2-mediated attachment to the extracellular matrix normally constrains the directional options available to the parasite as it migrates through its surrounding environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel V Stadler
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of MedicineBurlingtonUnited States
| | - Shane R Nelson
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Vermont Larner College of MedicineBurlingtonUnited States
| | - David M Warshaw
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Vermont Larner College of MedicineBurlingtonUnited States
| | - Gary E Ward
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of MedicineBurlingtonUnited States
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17
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Javanmardi Y, Colin-York H, Szita N, Fritzsche M, Moeendarbary E. Quantifying cell-generated forces: Poisson's ratio matters. COMMUNICATIONS PHYSICS 2021; 4:237. [PMID: 34841089 PMCID: PMC7612038 DOI: 10.1038/s42005-021-00740-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Quantifying mechanical forces generated by cellular systems has led to key insights into a broad range of biological phenomena from cell adhesion to immune cell activation. Traction force microscopy (TFM), the most widely employed force measurement methodology, fundamentally relies on knowledge of the force-displacement relationship and mechanical properties of the substrate. Together with the elastic modulus, the Poisson's ratio is a basic material property that to date has largely been overlooked in TFM. Here, we evaluate the sensitivity of TFM to Poisson's ratio by employing a series of computer simulations and experimental data analysis. We demonstrate how applying the correct Poisson's ratio is important for accurate force reconstruction and develop a framework for the determination of error levels resulting from the misestimation of the Poisson's ratio. In addition, we provide experimental estimation of the Poisson's ratios of elastic substrates commonly applied in TFM. Our work thus highlights the role of Poisson's ratio underpinning cellular force quantification studied across many biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousef Javanmardi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 7JE, UK
| | - Huw Colin-York
- Kennedy Institute for Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Nicolas Szita
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Marco Fritzsche
- Kennedy Institute for Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK
- Rosalind Franklin Institute, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Emad Moeendarbary
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 7JE, UK
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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18
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Blocking Palmitoylation of Toxoplasma gondii Myosin Light Chain 1 Disrupts Glideosome Composition but Has Little Impact on Parasite Motility. mSphere 2021; 6:6/3/e00823-20. [PMID: 34011689 PMCID: PMC8265671 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00823-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread apicomplexan parasite that causes severe disease in immunocompromised individuals and the developing fetus. Like other apicomplexans, T. gondii uses an unusual form of substrate-dependent gliding motility to invade cells of its hosts and to disseminate throughout the body during infection. It is well established that a myosin motor consisting of a class XIVa heavy chain (TgMyoA) and two light chains (TgMLC1 and TgELC1/2) plays an important role in parasite motility. The ability of the motor to generate force at the parasite periphery is thought to be reliant upon its anchoring and immobilization within a peripheral membrane-bound compartment, the inner membrane complex (IMC). The motor does not insert into the IMC directly; rather, this interaction is believed to be mediated by the binding of TgMLC1 to the IMC-anchored protein, TgGAP45. Therefore, the binding of TgMLC1 to TgGAP45 is considered a key element in the force transduction machinery of the parasite. TgMLC1 is palmitoylated, and we show here that palmitoylation occurs on two N-terminal cysteine residues, C8 and C11. Mutations that block TgMLC1 palmitoylation completely abrogate the binding of TgMLC1 to TgGAP45. Surprisingly, the loss of TgMLC1 binding to TgGAP45 in these mutant parasites has little effect on their ability to initiate or sustain movement. These results question a key tenet of the current model of apicomplexan motility and suggest that our understanding of gliding motility in this important group of human and animal pathogens is not yet complete. IMPORTANCE Gliding motility plays a central role in the life cycle of T. gondii and other apicomplexan parasites. The myosin motor thought to power motility is essential for virulence but distinctly different from the myosins found in humans. Consequently, an understanding of the mechanism(s) underlying parasite motility and the role played by this unusual myosin may reveal points of vulnerability that can be targeted for disease prevention or treatment. We show here that mutations that uncouple the motor from what is thought to be a key structural component of the motility machinery have little impact on parasite motility. This finding runs counter to predictions of the current, widely held “linear motor” model of motility, highlighting the need for further studies to fully understand how apicomplexan parasites generate the forces necessary to move into, out of, and between cells of the hosts they infect.
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19
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Das S, Stortz JF, Meissner M, Periz J. The multiple functions of actin in apicomplexan parasites. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13345. [PMID: 33885206 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The cytoskeletal protein actin is highly abundant and conserved in eukaryotic cells. It occurs in two different states- the globular (G-actin) form, which can polymerise into the filamentous (F-actin) form, fulfilling various critical functions including cytokinesis, cargo trafficking and cellular motility. In higher eukaryotes, there are several actin isoforms with nearly identical amino acid sequences. Despite the high level of amino acid identity, they display regulated expression patterns and unique non-redundant roles. The number of actin isoforms together with conserved sequences may reflect the selective pressure exerted by scores of actin binding proteins (ABPs) in higher eukaryotes. In contrast, in many protozoans such as apicomplexan parasites which possess only a few ABPs, the regulatory control of actin and its multiple functions are still obscure. Here, we provide a summary of the regulation and biological functions of actin in higher eukaryotes and compare it with the current knowledge in apicomplexans. We discuss future experiments that will help us understand the multiple, critical roles of this fascinating system in apicomplexans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujaan Das
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Experimental Parasitology, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Johannes Felix Stortz
- Department Metabolism of Infection, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Markus Meissner
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Experimental Parasitology, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Javier Periz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Experimental Parasitology, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
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20
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Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites are defined by complex apical structures, which are necessary for interaction with incredibly diverse host cells. Two studies now amend a long-standing paradigm by showing conservation of an essential ring structure in the entire phylum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Guizetti
- Parasitology, Centre for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Parasitology, Centre for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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21
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Bertiaux E, Balestra AC, Bournonville L, Louvel V, Maco B, Soldati-Favre D, Brochet M, Guichard P, Hamel V. Expansion microscopy provides new insights into the cytoskeleton of malaria parasites including the conservation of a conoid. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001020. [PMID: 33705377 PMCID: PMC7951857 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is caused by unicellular Plasmodium parasites. Plasmodium relies on diverse microtubule cytoskeletal structures for its reproduction, multiplication, and dissemination. Due to the small size of this parasite, its cytoskeleton has been primarily observable by electron microscopy (EM). Here, we demonstrate that the nanoscale cytoskeleton organisation is within reach using ultrastructure expansion microscopy (U-ExM). In developing microgametocytes, U-ExM allows monitoring the dynamic assembly of axonemes and concomitant tubulin polyglutamylation in whole cells. In the invasive merozoite and ookinete forms, U-ExM unveils the diversity across Plasmodium stages and species of the subpellicular microtubule arrays that confer cell rigidity. In ookinetes, we additionally identify an apical tubulin ring (ATR) that colocalises with markers of the conoid in related apicomplexan parasites. This tubulin-containing structure was presumed to be lost in Plasmodium despite its crucial role in motility and invasion in other apicomplexans. Here, U-ExM reveals that a divergent and considerably reduced form of the conoid is actually conserved in Plasmodium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloïse Bertiaux
- University of Geneva, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélia C. Balestra
- University of Geneva, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lorène Bournonville
- University of Geneva, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Vincent Louvel
- University of Geneva, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Bohumil Maco
- University of Geneva, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- University of Geneva, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Mathieu Brochet
- University of Geneva, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Paul Guichard
- University of Geneva, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Virginie Hamel
- University of Geneva, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Geneva, Switzerland
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22
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Dos Santos Pacheco N, Soldati-Favre D. Coupling Auxin-Inducible Degron System with Ultrastructure Expansion Microscopy to Accelerate the Discovery of Gene Function in Toxoplasma gondii. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2369:121-137. [PMID: 34313987 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1681-9_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Ultrastructure expansion microscopy (U-ExM) is an emerging technique allowing the localization of proteins and cellular structures, at a level of resolution only distinguishable previously via immunoelectron microscopy. U-ExM, as its name indicates, is based on the physical expansion of the sample in the three dimensions without altering its internal features. The proteins of interest are later immunostained for their detection. To accelerate the discovery of gene function in the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, U-ExM can be coupled to the auxin-inducible degron system (mAiD system). This pipeline led to the subcellular localization of the gene product at unprecedented resolution and simultaneously assessed the consequences of conditional gene disruption. In this chapter, we explain the specific U-ExM protocol used for T. gondii tachyzoite samples and provide non-trivial advice and tips to successfully perform the experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, CMU, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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23
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The Riveting Cellular Structures of Apicomplexan Parasites. Trends Parasitol 2020; 36:979-991. [PMID: 33011071 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2020.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic protozoa of the phylum Apicomplexa cause a range of human and animal diseases. Their complex life cycles - often heteroxenous with sexual and asexual phases in different hosts - rely on elaborate cytoskeletal structures to enable morphogenesis and motility, organize cell division, and withstand diverse environmental forces. This review primarily focuses on studies using Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp. as the best studied apicomplexans; however, many cytoskeletal adaptations are broadly conserved and predate the emergence of the parasitic phylum. After decades cataloguing the constituents of such structures, a dynamic picture is emerging of the assembly and maintenance of apicomplexan cytoskeletons, illuminating how they template and orient critical processes during infection. These observations impact our view of eukaryotic diversity and offer future challenges for cell biology.
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