Identifying the Location of a Single Protein along the DNA Strand Using Solid-State Nanopores

Label-free detection of glutathione and glutathione disulfide in biological fluid by using an alpha-hederin nanopore

Glutathione (GSH) is indispensable for maintaining redox homeostasis in biological fluids and serves as a key component in cellular defense mechanisms. Accurate assessment of GSH relative to its oxidized counterpart, glutathione disulfide (GSSG), is critical for the early diagnosis and understanding of conditions related to oxidative stress. Despite existing methods for their quantification, the label-free and simultaneous measurement of GSH and GSSG in biological fluid presents significant challenges. Herein, we report the use of an alpha-hederin (Ah) nanopore for the direct measurement of the GSH:GSSG ratio in simulated biological fluid, containing fetal bovine serum (FBS). This system hinges on detecting characteristic relative ion blockades (ΔI/Io) as GSH and GSSG molecules pass through the Ah nanopore under an applied electric field. The distinct current blockage signals derived from the translocation of GSH and GSSG enabled us to determine the molar ratio of GSH and its oxidized form. Notably, the interactions between the hydroxyl groups of the sugar moiety lining the nanopore's inner surface and the sulfhydryl group of GSH significantly influence the translocation dynamics, resulting in a longer translocation time for GSH compared to GSSG. The Ah nanopore technology proposed in this study offers a promising approach for real-time, single molecule-level monitoring of glutathione redox status in biological fluids, eliminating the need for labeling or extensive sample preparation.

Improving the Performance of Selective Solid-State Nanopore Sensing Using a Polyhistidine-Tagged Monovalent Streptavidin

Solid-state (SS-) nanopore sensing has gained tremendous attention in recent years, but it has been constrained by its intrinsic lack of selectivity. To address this, we previously established a novel SS-nanopore assay that produces translocation signals only when a target biotinylated nucleic acid fragment binds to monovalent streptavidin (MS), a protein variant with a single high-affinity biotin-binding domain. While this approach has enabled selective quantification of diverse nucleic acid biomarkers, sensitivity enhancements are needed to improve the detection of low-abundance translational targets. Because the translocation dynamics that determine assay efficacy are largely governed by constituent charge characteristics, we here incorporate a polyhistidine-tagged MS (hMS) to alter the component detectability. We investigate the effects of buffer pH, salt concentration, and SS-nanopore diameter on the performance with the alternate reagent, achieve significant improvements in measurement sensitivity and selectivity, and expand the range of device dimensions viable for the assay. We used this improvement to detect as little as 1 nM miRNA spiked into human plasma. Overall, our findings improve the potential for broader applications of SS-nanopores in the quantitative analyses of molecular biomarkers.

Multiplexed detection of viral antigen and RNA using nanopore sensing and encoded molecular probes

We report on single-molecule nanopore sensing combined with position-encoded DNA molecular probes, with chemistry tuned to simultaneously identify various antigen proteins and multiple RNA gene fragments of SARS-CoV-2 with high sensitivity and selectivity. We show that this sensing strategy can directly detect spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins in unprocessed human saliva. Moreover, our approach enables the identification of RNA fragments from patient samples using nasal/throat swabs, enabling the identification of critical mutations such as D614G, G446S, or Y144del among viral variants. In particular, it can detect and discriminate between SARS-CoV-2 lineages of wild-type B.1.1.7 (Alpha), B.1.617.2 (Delta), and B.1.1.539 (Omicron) within a single measurement without the need for nucleic acid sequencing. The sensing strategy of the molecular probes is easily adaptable to other viral targets and diseases and can be expanded depending on the application required.

Discriminating Single Nucleotide Variations in Solid-State Nanopores by Evaluating the Combination Efficiency between DNA Polymerase and Its Substrate

A single nucleotide variant present between two otherwise identical nucleic acids will have unexpected functional consequences frequently. Here, a neoteric single nucleotide variation (SNV) detection assay that integrates two complementary nanotechnology systems, nanoassembly technology and an ingenious nanopore biosensing platform, has been applied to this research. Specifically, we set up a detection system to reflect the binding efficiency of the polymerase and nanoprobe through the difference of nanopore signals and then explore the effect of base mutation at the binding site. In addition, machine learning based on support vector machines is used to automatically classify characteristic events mapped by nanopore signals. Our system reliably discriminates single nucleotide variants at binding sites, even possessing the recognition among transitions, transversions, and hypoxanthine (base I). Our results demonstrate the potential of solid-state nanopore detection for SNV and provide some ideas for expanding solid-state nanopore detection platforms.

The application of single molecule nanopore sensing for quantitative analysis

Nanopore-based sensors typically work by monitoring transient pulses in conductance via current-time traces as molecules translocate through the nanopore. The unique property of being able to monitor single molecules gives nanopore sensors the potential as quantitative sensors based on the counting of single molecules. This review provides an overview of the concepts and fabrication of nanopore sensors as well as nanopore sensing with a view toward using nanopore sensors for quantitative analysis. We first introduce the classification of nanopores and highlight their applications in molecular identification with some pioneering studies. The review then shifts focus to recent strategies to extend nanopore sensors to devices that can rapidly and accurately quantify the amount of an analyte of interest. Finally, future prospects are provided and briefly discussed. The aim of this review is to aid in understanding recent advances, challenges, and prospects for nanopore sensors for quantitative analysis.

Shaped DNA origami carrier nanopore translocation influenced by aptamer based surface modification

DNA origami is widely used as a translocation carrier to assist solid-state nanopore analysis, e.g., soft linear origami carrier and special-shaped origami structures. In the linear origami carriers based nanopore sensing, molecular modifications induced tiny structural and charge changes, can result in significant variations on translocation signals to facilitating single-molecule sensing. However, an understanding on the influences of surface modifications on special-shaped DNA origami structures during solid-state (SS) nanopores translocation is still far elusive. Herein, we reported a surface modification strategy using aptamer/target-binding to influence the translocation of the shaped origami ribbon carrier through SS-nanopore. Our measurements indicate that the translocation signal variations can respond to ATP/aptamer binding on the carrier surface, even to the surface modifications induced by spatial distributions and enzyme catalysis. Meanwhile, the results also suggest a possibility to identify small spatial and electronic changes on DNA origami by using SS-nanopore. We envision that the surface aptamer-binding influenced origami translocation strategy could find more applications in origami carrier assisted SS-nanopore sensing and detection.

Detection and Characterization of Single Cisplatin Adducts on DNA by Nanopore Sequencing

Detection and characterization of an individual cisplatin adduct on a single DNA molecule is a demanding task. We explore the characteristic features of cisplatin adducts in the nanopore sequencing signal in aspects of dwell time, genome anchored current trace, and basecalling accuracy. The offset between the motor protein and the nanopore constriction region is revealed by dwell time analysis to be about 14 bases in the nanopore device as we examined. Characteristic distortions due to cisplatin adducts are illustrated in genome anchored current trace analysis, constituting the fingerprint for identification of cisplatin adduct. The sharp increase in odds ratio at the location of adducting sites provides additional feature in the detection of the adduct. By these combined methods, single cisplatin adducts can be detected with high fidelity on a single read of the DNA sequence. The study demonstrates an effective method in the detection and characterization of single cisplatin adducts on DNA at the single-molecule level and with single nucleotide spatial resolution.

Structure-flexible DNA origami translocation through a solid-state nanopore

Nanopore detection is a label-free detection method designed to analyze single molecules by comparing specific translocation events with high signal-to-noise ratios. However, it is still challenging to understand the influences of structural flexibility of 100 nm DNA origami on nanopore translocations. Here, we used solid-state nanopores to characterize the translocation of “nunchaku” origami structures, the flexibility of which can be regulated by introducing specific DNA strands and streptavidin protein. The structural changes can result in significant variations in the translocation signals and distributions. It is anticipated that such a method of the flexible DNA origami translocation through a solid-state nanopore will find further applications in molecular detection as well as biosensing.

Using a solid-state nanopore to characterize the translocation of “nunchaku” origami with tunable-structures.

Multiplexed DNA Identification Using Site Specific dCas9 Barcodes and Nanopore Sensing

Decorating double-stranded DNA with dCas9 barcodes to identify characteristic short sequences provides an alternative to fully sequencing DNA samples for rapid and highly specific analysis of a DNA sample. Solid state nanopore sensors are especially promising for this type of single-molecule sensing because of the ability to analyze patterns in the ionic current signatures of DNA molecules. Here, we systematically demonstrate the use of highly specific dCas9 probes to create unique barcodes on the DNA that can be read out using nanopore sensors. Single dCas9 probes are targeted to various positions on DNA strands up to 48 kbp long and are effectively measured in high salt conditions typical of nanopore sensing. Multiple probes bound to the same DNA strand at characteristic target sequences create distinct barcodes of double and triple peaks. Finally, double and triple barcodes are used to simultaneously identify two different DNA targets in a background mixture of bacterial DNA. Our method forms the basis of a fast and versatile assay for multiplexed DNA sensing applications in complex samples.

Single-Molecule Analysis with Solid-State Nanopores

Solid-state nanopores and nanopipettes are an exciting class of single-molecule sensors that has grown enormously over the last two decades. They offer a platform for testing fundamental concepts of stochasticity and transport at the nanoscale, for studying single-molecule biophysics and, increasingly, also for new analytical applications and in biomedical sensing. This review covers some fundamental aspects underpinning sensor operation and transport and, at the same time, it aims to put these into context as an analytical technique. It highlights new and recent developments and discusses some of the challenges lying ahead.

DNA translocation through a nanopore in an ultrathin self-assembled peptide membrane

Here, we explore the possibility of using peptide-based materials as a membrane in solid-state nanopore devices in an effort to develop a sequence-specific, programmable biological membrane platform. We use a recently developed tyrosine-mediated self-assembly peptide sheet. At the air/water interface, the 5mer peptide YFCFY self-assembles into a uniform and robust two-dimensional (2D) structure, and the peptide sheet is easily transferred to a low-noise glass substrate. The thickness of the peptide membrane can be adjusted to approximately 5 nm (or even to 2 nm) by an etching process, and the diameters of the peptide nanopores can be precisely controlled using a focused electron beam with an attuned spot size. The ionic current noise of the peptide nanopore is comparable to those of typical silicon nitride nanopores or multilayer 2D materials. Using this membrane, we successfully observe translocation of 1000 bp double-stranded DNA with a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio of ∼30 and an elongated translocation speed of ∼1 bp μs^-1. Our results suggest that the self-assembled peptide film can be used as a sensitive nanopore membrane and employed as a platform for applying biological functionalities to solid-state substrates.

Small molecule electro-optical binding assay using nanopores

The identification of short nucleic acids and proteins at the single molecule level is a major driving force for the development of novel detection strategies. Nanopore sensing has been gaining in prominence due to its label-free operation and single molecule sensitivity. However, it remains challenging to detect small molecules selectively. Here we propose to combine the electrical sensing modality of a nanopore with fluorescence-based detection. Selectivity is achieved by grafting either molecular beacons, complementary DNA, or proteins to a DNA molecular carrier. We show that the fraction of synchronised events between the electrical and optical channels, can be used to perform single molecule binding assays without the need to directly label the analyte. Such a strategy can be used to detect targets in complex biological fluids such as human serum and urine. Future optimisation of this technology may enable novel assays for quantitative protein detection as well as gene mutation analysis with applications in next-generation clinical sample analysis.

Nanopore detection of small molecules can be improved using molecular carriers, but separating a small analyte from the carrier signal can be challenging. Here the authors address this challenge using simultaneous electrical and optical readout in nanopore sensing to detect small molecules and quantify binding affinities.

Discrimination of Protein Amino Acid or Its Protonated State at Single-Residue Resolution by Graphene Nanopores

The function of a protein is determined by the composition of amino acids and is essential to proteomics. However, protein sequencing remains challenging due to the protein's irregular charge state and its high-order structure. Here, a proof of principle study on the capability of protein sequencing by graphene nanopores integrated with atomic force microscopy is performed using molecular dynamics simulations. It is found that nanopores can discriminate a protein sequence and even its protonation state at single-residue resolution. Both the pulling forces and current blockades induced by the permeation of protein residues are found to be highly correlated with the type of amino acids, which makes the residues identifiable. It is also found that aside from the dimension, both the conformation and charge state of the residue can significantly influence the force and current signal during its permeation through the nanopore. In particular, due to the electro-osmotic flow effect, the blockade current for the double-protonated histidine is slightly smaller than that for single-protonated histidine, which makes it possible for discrimination of different protonation states of amino acids. The results reported here present a novel protein sequencing scheme using graphene nanopores combined with nanomanipulation technology.

Translocation of tetrahedral DNA nanostructures through a solid-state nanopore

Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDNs) are programmable DNA nanostructures that have great potential in bio-sensing, cell imaging and therapeutic applications. In this study, we investigate the translocation behavior of individual TDNs through solid-state nanopores. Pronounced translocation signals for TDNs are observed that are sensitive to the size of the nanostructures. TDNs bound to linear DNA molecules produce an extra signal in the ionic current traces. Statistical analysis of its relative temporal position reveals distinct features between TDNs bound to the end and those bound to the middle of the linear DNA molecules. A featured current trace for two TDNs bound to the same linear DNA molecule has also been observed. Our study demonstrates the potential of using TDNs as sensitive bio-sensors to detect specific segments of a single DNA molecule in real time, based on solid-state nanopore devices.

Label-free detection of early oligomerization of α-synuclein and its mutants A30P/E46K through solid-state nanopores

A30P and E46K are two mutants of α-synuclein (α-Syn) associated with familial early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD), and amyloid fibrils of α-Syn are the hallmarks of this disease. Detecting the heterogeneous system in the oligomerization stage of α-Syn is crucial for understanding the fibril formation and in vivo toxicity of α-Syn oligomers. Over the last two decades, solid-state nanopore technology has been developed into a reliable and versatile method in single-molecule studies. In this work, we study the time-dependent kinetics of early oligomerization of wild-type α-Syn, A30P, and E46K mutants through silicon nitride solid-state nanopores. By testing A30P, E46K, and wild-type α-Syn samples with different incubation times-from 3 to 15 days-we identify three typical types of oligomers formed in the oligomerization stage and confirm that A30P and E46K mutants aggregate faster than wild-type α-Syn. The results imply that the distinct aggregation pathways and kinetics featured by wild-type α-Syn and mutations may account for their distinct cytotoxicity and pathology in PD-related studies.

Differentiation of selectively labeled peptides using solid-state nanopores

Determination of the amino acid sequence of a protein is critical for understanding various biological processes. Mass spectrometry has mainly been used for protein identification; however, there are limitations to its sensitivity when detecting low abundance proteins. In this study, we attempted to distinguish between three similar peptide sequences (∼40 amino acids, ∼5 kDa) that differed only by the location or number of cysteine residues with solid-state nanopores. The cysteine residues are located at one end, one at the center, and at both ends for each of the three peptides. We found that differentiation of the three types of peptides by nanopore signals was difficult. However, when the cysteine residue was labeled with a negatively charged molecule, Flamma® 496, the labeled peptides showed distinct signals for each peptide. Comparing the relative current blockades of labeled peptides with applied voltages, we found that the label was able to change peptide conformations and the resulting ionic current signals from the three labeled peptides were distinguished based on the relative current blockade, full width at half-maximum of the current blockade distribution, and single-molecule level peak shape analysis. Our results suggest that solid-state nanopores combined with a targeted labeling strategy could be used to obtain characteristic peptide signatures that could ultimately be used for protein identification.

Label-Free Optical Detection of DNA Translocations through Plasmonic Nanopores

Solid-state nanopores are single-molecule sensors that hold great potential for rapid protein and nucleic-acid analysis. Despite their many opportunities, the conventional ionic current detection scheme that is at the heart of the sensor suffers inherent limitations. This scheme intrinsically couples signal strength to the driving voltage, requires the use of high-concentration electrolytes, suffers from capacitive noise, and impairs high-density sensor integration. Here, we propose a fundamentally different detection scheme based on the enhanced light transmission through a plasmonic nanopore. We demonstrate that translocations of single DNA molecules can be optically detected, without the need of any labeling, in the transmitted light intensity through an inverted-bowtie plasmonic nanopore. Characterization and the cross-correlation of the optical signals with their electrical counterparts verify the plasmonic basis of the optical signal. We demonstrate DNA translocation event detection in a regime of driving voltages and buffer conditions where traditional ionic current sensing fails. This label-free optical detection scheme offers opportunities to probe native DNA-protein interactions at physiological conditions.

Advanced Nanoscale Approaches to Single-(Bio)entity Sensing and Imaging

Individual (bio)chemical entities could show a very heterogeneous behaviour under the same conditions that could be relevant in many biological processes of significance in the life sciences. Conventional detection approaches are only able to detect the average response of an ensemble of entities and assume that all entities are identical. From this perspective, important information about the heterogeneities or rare (stochastic) events happening in individual entities would remain unseen. Some nanoscale tools present interesting physicochemical properties that enable the possibility to detect systems at the single-entity level, acquiring richer information than conventional methods. In this review, we introduce the foundations and the latest advances of several nanoscale approaches to sensing and imaging individual (bio)entities using nanoprobes, nanopores, nanoimpacts, nanoplasmonics and nanomachines. Several (bio)entities such as cells, proteins, nucleic acids, vesicles and viruses are specifically considered. These nanoscale approaches provide a wide and complete toolbox for the study of many biological systems at the single-entity level.

Recent Progress in Solid-State Nanopores

The solid-state nanopore has attracted much attention as a next-generation DNA sequencing tool or a single-molecule biosensor platform with its high sensitivity of biomolecule detection. The platform has advantages of processability, robustness of the device, and flexibility in the nanopore dimensions as compared with the protein nanopore, but with the limitation of insufficient spatial and temporal resolution to be utilized in DNA sequencing. Here, the fundamental principles of the solid-state nanopore are summarized to illustrate the novelty of the device, and improvements in the performance of the platform in terms of device fabrication are explained. The efforts to reduce the electrical noise of solid-state nanopore devices, and thus to enhance the sensitivity of detection, are presented along with detailed descriptions of the noise properties of the solid-state nanopore. Applications of 2D materials including graphene, h-BN, and MoS₂ as a nanopore membrane to enhance the spatial resolution of nanopore detection, and organic coatings on the nanopore membranes for the addition of chemical functionality to the nanopore are summarized. Finally, the recently reported applications of the solid-state nanopore are categorized and described according to the target biomolecules: DNA-bound proteins, modified DNA structures, proteins, and protein oligomers.

Reduction of DNA Folding by Ionic Liquids and Its Effects on the Analysis of DNA-Protein Interaction Using Solid-State Nanopore

DNA folding is not desirable for solid-state nanopore techniques when analyzing the interaction of a biomolecule with its specific binding sites on DNA since the signal derived from the binding site could be buried by a large signal from the folding of DNA nearby. To resolve the problems associated with DNA folding, ionic liquids (ILs), which are known to interact with DNA through charge-charge and hydrophobic interactions are employed. 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (C4 mim) is found to be the most effective in lowering the incident of DNA folding during its translocation through solid-state nanopores (4-5 nm diameter). The rate of folding signals from the translocation of DNA-C4 mim is decreased by half in comparison to that from the control bare DNA. The conformational changes of DNA upon complexation with C4 mim are further examined using atomic force microscopy, showing that the entanglement of DNA which is common in bare DNA is not observed when treated with C4 mim. The stretching effect of C4 mim on DNA strands improves the detection accuracy of nanopore for identifying the location of zinc finger protein bound to its specific binding site in DNA by lowering the incident of DNA folding.

Enhancing the sensitivity of DNA detection by structurally modified solid-state nanopore

Solid-state nanopore is an ionic current-based biosensing platform, which would be a top candidate for next-generation DNA sequencing and a high-throughput drug-screening tool at single-molecular-scale resolution. There have been several approaches to enhance the sensitivity and reliability of biomolecule detection using the nanopores particularly in two aspects: signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and translocation dwell time. In this study, an additional nano-well of 100-150 nm diameter and the aspect ratio of ∼5 called 'guide structure' was inserted in conventional silicon-substrate nanopore device to increase both SNR and dwell time. First, the magnitude of signals (conductance drop (ΔG)) increased 2.5 times under applied voltage of 300 mV through the guide-inserted nanopore compared to the conventional SiN/Si nanopore in the same condition. Finite element simulation was conducted to figure out the origin of ΔG modification, which showed that the guide structure produced high ΔG due to the compartmental limitation of ion transports through the guide to the sensing nanopore. Second, the translocation velocity decreased in the guide-inserted structure to a maximum of 20% of the velocity in the conventional device at 300 mV. Electroosmotic drag formed inside the guide structure, when directly applied to the remaining segment of translocating DNA molecules in cis chamber, affected the DNA translocation velocity. This study is the first experimental report on the effect of the geometrical confinement to a remnant DNA on both SNR and dwell time of nanopore translocations.

Recent progress in dissecting molecular recognition by DNA polymerases with non-native substrates

DNA polymerases must discriminate the correct Watson-Crick base pair-forming deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) substrate from three other dNTPs and additional triphosphates found in the cell. The rarity of misincorporations in vivo, then, belies the high tolerance for dNTP analogs observed in vitro. Advances over the last 10 years in single-molecule fluorescence and electronic detection of dNTP analog incorporation enable exploration of the mechanism and limits to base discrimination by DNA polymerases. Such studies reveal transient motions of DNA polymerase during substrate recognition and mutagenesis in the context of erroneous dNTP incorporation that can lead to evolution and genetic disease. Further improvements in time resolution and noise reduction of single-molecule studies will uncover deeper mechanistic understanding of this critical, first step in evolution.

Ionic Current-Based Mapping of Short Sequence Motifs in Single DNA Molecules Using Solid-State Nanopores

Nanopore sensors show great potential for rapid, single-molecule determination of DNA sequence information. Here, we develop an ionic current-based method for determining the positions of short sequence motifs in double-stranded DNA molecules with solid-state nanopores. Using the DNA-methyltransferase M.TaqI and a biotinylated S-adenosyl-l-methionine cofactor analogue we create covalently attached biotin labels at 5'-TCGA-3' sequence motifs. Monovalent streptavidin is then added to bind to the biotinylated sites giving rise to additional current blockade signals when the DNA passes through a conical quartz nanopore. We determine the relationship between translocation time and position along the DNA contour and find a minimum resolvable distance between two labeled sites of ∼200 bp. We then characterize a variety of DNA molecules by determining the positions of bound streptavidin and show that two short genomes can be simultaneously detected in a mixture. Our method provides a simple, generic single-molecule detection platform enabling DNA characterization in an electrical format suited for portable devices for potential diagnostic applications.

Salt Gradient Improving Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Solid-State Nanopore

As the single molecule detection tool, solid-state nanopores are being applied in more and more fields, such as medicine controlled delivery, ion conductance microscopes, nanosensors, and DNA sequencing. The critical information obtained from nanopores is the signal collected, which is the ionic block current caused by the molecules passing through the pores. However, the information collected is, in part, impeded by the relatively low signal-to-noise ratio of the current solid-state nanopore measurements. Here, we report that using a salt gradient across the nanopore could improve the signal-to-noise ratio when molecules translocate through Si₃N₄ nanopore. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the improved signal-to-noise ratio is connected with not only the value of surface charge but also that of a salt gradient between cis and trans sides of the nanopore.

Single molecule based SNP detection using designed DNA carriers and solid-state nanopores

A novel nanopore-DNA carrier method is demonstrated for SNP detection and following DNA strand displacement kinetics at the single molecule level.

Single Molecule Localization and Discrimination of DNA-Protein Complexes by Controlled Translocation Through Nanocapillaries

Through the use of optical tweezers we performed controlled translocations of DNA-protein complexes through nanocapillaries. We used RNA polymerase (RNAP) with two binding sites on a 7.2 kbp DNA fragment and a dCas9 protein tailored to have five binding sites on λ-DNA (48.5 kbp). Measured localization of binding sites showed a shift from the expected positions on the DNA that we explained using both analytical fitting and a stochastic model. From the measured force versus stage curves we extracted the nonequilibrium work done during the translocation of a DNA-protein complex and used it to obtain an estimate of the effective charge of the complex. In combination with conductivity measurements, we provided a proof of concept for discrimination between different DNA-protein complexes simultaneous to the localization of their binding sites.

Single-Molecule Characterization of DNA-Protein Interactions Using Nanopore Biosensors

Detection and characterization of nucleic acid-protein interactions, particularly those involving DNA and proteins such as transcription factors, enzymes, and DNA packaging proteins, remain significant barriers to our understanding of genetic regulation. Nanopores are an extremely sensitive and versatile sensing platform for label-free detection of single biomolecules. Analyte molecules are drawn to and through a nanoscale aperture by an electrophoretic force, which acts upon their native charge while in the sensing region of the pore. When the nanopore's diameter is only slightly larger than the biopolymer's cross section (typically a few nm); the latter must translocate through the pore in a linear fashion due to the constricted geometry in this region. These features allow nanopores to interrogate protein-nucleic acids in multiple sensing modes: first, by scanning and mapping the locations of binding sites along an analyte molecule, and second, by probing the strength of the bond between a protein and nucleic acid, using the native charge of the nucleic acid to apply an electrophoretic force to the complex while the protein is geometrically prevented from passing through the nanopore. In this chapter, we describe progress toward nanopore sensing of protein-nucleic acid complexes in the context of both mapping binding sites and performing force spectroscopy to determine the strength of interactions. We conclude by reviewing the strengths and challenges of the nanopore technique in the context of studying DNA-protein interactions.

Nanopore-Based Target Sequence Detection

The promise of portable diagnostic devices relies on three basic requirements: comparable sensitivity to established platforms, inexpensive manufacturing and cost of operations, and the ability to survive rugged field conditions. Solid state nanopores can meet all these requirements, but to achieve high manufacturing yields at low costs, assays must be tolerant to fabrication imperfections and to nanopore enlargement during operation. This paper presents a model for molecular engineering techniques that meets these goals with the aim of detecting target sequences within DNA. In contrast to methods that require precise geometries, we demonstrate detection using a range of pore geometries. As a result, our assay model tolerates any pore-forming method and in-situ pore enlargement. Using peptide nucleic acid (PNA) probes modified for conjugation with synthetic bulk-adding molecules, pores ranging 15-50 nm in diameter are shown to detect individual PNA-bound DNA. Detection of the CFTRΔF508 gene mutation, a codon deletion responsible for ∼66% of all cystic fibrosis chromosomes, is demonstrated with a 26-36 nm pore size range by using a size-enhanced PNA probe. A mathematical framework for assessing the statistical significance of detection is also presented.

High-speed detection of DNA translocation in nanopipettes

We present a high-speed electrical detection scheme based on a custom-designed CMOS amplifier which allows the analysis of DNA translocation in glass nanopipettes on a microsecond timescale. Translocation of different DNA lengths in KCl electrolyte provides a scaling factor of the DNA translocation time equal to p = 1.22, which is different from values observed previously with nanopipettes in LiCl electrolyte or with nanopores. Based on a theoretical model involving electrophoresis, hydrodynamics and surface friction, we show that the experimentally observed range of p-values may be the result of, or at least be affected by DNA adsorption and friction between the DNA and the substrate surface.

Noise and sensitivity characteristics of solid-state nanopores with a boron nitride 2-D membrane on a pyrex substrate

We have fabricated highly sensitive and low noise solid-state nanopores with multiple layers of boron nitride (BN) membranes transferred onto a pyrex substrate. Both the dielectric and flicker noise of the device, which have been described as one of the bottlenecks to making highly sensitive 2-D membrane nanopore devices, have been reduced as follows. Firstly, a pyrex substrate with a low dielectric constant (εr = 4.7-5.1) and low dielectric loss (D < 0.001) is used instead of a Si substrate to reduce the dielectric noise of the device. Secondly, flicker noise is minimized by employing a 100 nm thick SiNx supporting layer with a small opening (less than 100 nm) for BN membrane transfer to enhance the mechanical stability. The flicker noise is further reduced by transferring multiple layers of BN instead of a single layer of BN. The resulting multi-layered BN device shows significant reduction of dielectric and 1/f noise as compared to the devices with a single layer of the BN and Si substrate. Furthermore, we demonstrate dsDNA translocations with a high signal to noise ratio around 50 at 100 and 10 kHz bandwidths.