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Liang J, Wang S, Luo Z, Fu J, Hu J, He J, Li Q. Correlating the Interfacial Polar-Phase Structure to the Local Chemistry in Ferroelectric Polymer Nanocomposites by Combined Scanning Probe Microscopy. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2022; 15:5. [PMID: 36472752 PMCID: PMC9727024 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-022-00978-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Ferroelectric polymer nanocomposites possess exceptional electric properties with respect to the two otherwise uniform phases, which is commonly attributed to the critical role of the matrix-particle interfacial region. However, the structure-property correlation of the interface remains unestablished, and thus, the design of ferroelectric polymer nanocomposite has largely relied on the trial-and-error method. Here, a strategy that combines multi-mode scanning probe microscopy-based electrical characterization and nano-infrared spectroscopy is developed to unveil the local structure-property correlation of the interface in ferroelectric polymer nanocomposites. The results show that the type of surface modifiers decorated on the nanoparticles can significantly influence the local polar-phase content and the piezoelectric effect of the polymer matrix surrounding the nanoparticles. The strongly coupled polar-phase content and piezoelectric effect measured directly in the interfacial region as well as the computed bonding energy suggest that the property enhancement originates from the formation of hydrogen bond between the surface modifiers and the ferroelectric polymer. It is also directly detected that the local domain size of the ferroelectric polymer can impact the energy level and distribution of charge traps in the interfacial region and eventually influence the local dielectric strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajie Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaojie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinliang He
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People's Republic of China.
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Li J, Pan J, Yin W, Cai Y, Huang H, He Y, Gong G, Yuan Y, Fan C, Zhang Q, Wang L. Recent status and advanced progress of tip effect induced by micro-nanostructure. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2022.108049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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3
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Wang S, Luo Z, Liang J, Hu J, Jiang N, He J, Li Q. Polymer Nanocomposite Dielectrics: Understanding the Matrix/Particle Interface. ACS NANO 2022; 16:13612-13656. [PMID: 36107156 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c07404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Polymer nanocomposite dielectrics possess exceptional electric properties that are absent in the pristine dielectric polymers. The matrix/particle interface in polymer nanocomposite dielectrics is suggested to play decisive roles on the bulk material performance. Herein, we present a critical overview of recent research advances and important insights in understanding the matrix/particle interfacial characteristics in polymer nanocomposite dielectrics. The primary experimental strategies and state-of-the-art characterization techniques for resolving the local property-structure correlation of the matrix/particle interface are dissected in depth, with a focus on the characterization capabilities of each strategy or technique that other approaches cannot compete with. Limitations to each of the experimental strategy are evaluated as well. In the last section of this Review, we summarize and compare the three experimental strategies from multiple aspects and point out their advantages and disadvantages, critical issues, and possible experimental schemes to be established. Finally, the authors' personal viewpoints regarding the challenges of the existing experimental strategies are presented, and potential directions for the interface study are proposed for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jiajie Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Naisheng Jiang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jinliang He
- State Key Laboratory of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Qi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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4
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Lee H, Shin K, Moon W. Capacitive Measurements of SiO 2 Films of Different Thicknesses Using a MOSFET-Based SPM Probe. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21124073. [PMID: 34199213 PMCID: PMC8231994 DOI: 10.3390/s21124073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We utilized scanning probe microscopy (SPM) based on a metal-oxide-silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET) to image interdigitated electrodes covered with oxide films that were several hundred nanometers in thickness. The signal varied depending on the thickness of the silicon dioxide film covering the electrodes. We deposited a 400- or 500-nm-thick silicon dioxide film on each sample electrode. Thick oxide films are difficult to analyze using conventional probes because of their low capacitance. In addition, we evaluated linearity and performed frequency response measurements; the measured frequency response reflected the electrical characteristics of the system, including the MOSFET, conductive tip, and local sample area. Our technique facilitated analysis of the passivation layers of integrated circuits, especially those of the back-end-of-line (BEOL) process, and can be used for subsurface imaging of various dielectric layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoontaek Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang-si 37673, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea;
| | - Kumjae Shin
- Safety System R&D Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), 15 Jisiksaneop-ro, Hayang-eup, Gyeongsan-si 38408, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea;
| | - Wonkyu Moon
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang-si 37673, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-54-279-2184; Fax: +82-54-279-0489
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Fu S, Wang R, Tang D, Zhang X, He D. Directly Probing Interfacial Coupling in a Monolayer MoSe 2 and CuPc Heterostructure. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:18372-18379. [PMID: 33830724 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c03779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
It is of great importance to develop useful methods to evaluate interfacial coupling strength noninvasively for exploring and optimizing heterointerface functionality. Recently, organic-inorganic van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures (HSs) composed of organic semiconductors and transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMD) have shown great potential for developing next-generation flexible optical, electrical, and optoelectrical devices. Since vdW coupling dominates the property of such a vdW HS, it is crucial to develop a method to evaluate its interfacial coupling strength noninvasively. In this work, by combining electrical force microscopy (EFM) and Raman and photoluminescence spectroscopic measurements, we were able to directly probe the coupling strength between monolayer MoSe2 and a copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) thin film. Especially, we also found a new Raman mode in HS due to the Davydov splitting of the CuPc thin film via strong interfacial coupling between the two materials. This new Raman mode was thus utilized as a probe to reveal the modulation of the coupling strength by changing post-treatment conditions. All of these results indicate that the method developed here is capable of evaluating the coupling strength of the MoSe2/CuPc HS effectively and innovatively, which aids in providing deep insights into such hybrid vdW HSs for future optical and optoelectrical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Fu
- Synergetic Innovation Center for Quantum Effects and Application, Key Laboratory of Low-dimensional Quantum Structures and Quantum Control of Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Electronics, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, China
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Optical Information, Ministry of Education, Institute of Optoelectronic Technology, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Rui Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Standardization and Measurement for Nanotechnology, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Dongsheng Tang
- Synergetic Innovation Center for Quantum Effects and Application, Key Laboratory of Low-dimensional Quantum Structures and Quantum Control of Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Electronics, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, China
| | - Xiaoxian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Optical Information, Ministry of Education, Institute of Optoelectronic Technology, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Dawei He
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Optical Information, Ministry of Education, Institute of Optoelectronic Technology, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
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Peng S, Luo Z, Wang S, Liang J, Yuan C, Yuan Z, Hu J, He J, Li Q. Mapping the Space Charge at Nanoscale in Dielectric Polymer Nanocomposites. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:53425-53434. [PMID: 33174412 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c13669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Heterogeneous dielectric materials such as dielectric polymer nanocomposites have attracted extensive attention because of their exceptional insulating and dielectric performance, which originates from the unique space charge dynamics associated with the various interfacial regions. However, the space charge distribution and transport in polymer nanocomposites remain elusive due to the lack of analytical methods that can precisely probe the charge profile at the nanoscale resolution. Although a few studies have explored the possibility of using scanning probe techniques for characterizing the local charge distribution, the interference from induced electrical polarization of the material has been unfortunately ignored, leading to inaccurate results. In this contribution, we report an open-loop Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) method with nanoscale resolution for the direct detection of the space charge profile in dielectric polymer nanocomposites. Unlike the conventional studies where a vertical direct current (DC) voltage is applied on the sample through the probe to evoke the charge injection and transport in dielectric polymer nanocomposites, the present method is established based on a delicate electrode configuration where a lateral electric field is allowed to be applied on the sample during the KPFM test. This special testing configuration enables real-time charge injection and transport without inducing the electrical polarization of material along the vertical direction, which gives rise to clean mapping of space charges and reveals the interfacial charge trapping in polymer nanocomposites. This work provides a robust and reliable method for studying the sophisticated charge transport properties associated with the various interfacial regions in heterogeneous dielectric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simin Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shaojie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jiajie Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Chao Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhikang Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jinliang He
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Qi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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Ren H, Sun WF. Characterizing Dielectric Permittivity of Nanoscale Dielectric Films by Electrostatic Micro-Probe Technology: Finite Element Simulations. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:E5405. [PMID: 31817944 PMCID: PMC6960583 DOI: 10.3390/s19245405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Finite element simulations for detecting the dielectric permittivity of planar nanoscale dielectrics by electrostatic probe are performed to explore the microprobe technology of characterizing nanomaterials. The electrostatic force produced by the polarization of nanoscale dielectrics is analyzed by a capacitance gradient between the probe and nano-sample in an electrostatic detection system, in which sample thickness is varied in the range of 1 nm-10 μm, the width (diameter) encompasses from 100 nm to 10 μm, the tilt angle of probe alters between 0° and 20°, and the relative dielectric constant covers 2-1000 to represent a majority of dielectric materials. For dielectric thin films with infinite lateral dimension, the critical diameter is determined, not only by the geometric shape and tilt angle of detecting probe, but also by the thickness of the tested nanofilm. Meanwhile, for the thickness greater than 100 nm, the critical diameter is almost independent on the probe geometry while being primarily dominated by the thickness and dielectric permittivity of nanomaterials, which approximately complies a variation as exponential functions. For nanofilms with a plane size which can be regarded as infinite, a pertaining analytical formalism is established and verified for the film thickness in an ultrathin limit of 10-100 nm, with the probe axis being perpendicular and tilt to film plane, respectively. The present research suggests a general testing scheme for characterizing flat, nanoscale, dielectric materials on metal substrates by means of electrostatic microscopy, which can realize an accurate quantitative analysis of dielectric permittivity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wei-Feng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Dielectrics and Its Application, Ministry of Education, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China;
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Park J, Jeon D, Kang Y, Yu YJ, Kim T. Direct Mapping of the Gate Response of a Multilayer WSe 2/MoS 2 Heterostructure with Locally Different Degrees of Charge Depletion. J Phys Chem Lett 2019; 10:4010-4016. [PMID: 31137929 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b01192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the interlayer charge coupling mechanism in a two-dimensional van der Waals (vdW) heterojunction is crucial for optimizing the performance of heterostructure-based (opto)electronic devices. Here, we report mapping the gate response of a multilayer WSe2/MoS2 heterostructure with locally different degrees of charge depletion through mobile carrier measurements based on electrostatic force microscopy. We observed ambipolar or unipolar behavior depending on the degree of charge depletion in the heterojunction under tip gating. Interestingly, the WSe2 on MoS2 shows gating behavior that is more efficient than that on the SiO2/Si substrate, which can be explained by the high dielectric environment and screening of impurities on the SiO2 surface by the MoS2. Furthermore, we found that the gate-induced majority carriers in the heterojunction reduce the carrier lifetime, leading to the enhanced interlayer recombination of the photogenerated carriers under illumination. Our work provides a comprehensive understanding of the interfacial phenomena at the vdW heterointerface with charge depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongwoo Park
- Department of Physics , Hankuk University of Foreign Studies , Yongin 17035 , Korea
| | - Dohyeon Jeon
- Department of Physics , Hankuk University of Foreign Studies , Yongin 17035 , Korea
| | - Yebin Kang
- Department of Physics , Hankuk University of Foreign Studies , Yongin 17035 , Korea
| | - Young-Jun Yu
- Department of Physics , Chungnam National University , Daejeon 34134 , Korea
| | - Taekyeong Kim
- Department of Physics , Hankuk University of Foreign Studies , Yongin 17035 , Korea
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Seidel JV, Castañeda-Uribe OA, Arevalo S, Muñoz F, Proud W, Avila A. Relative permittivity estimation of wheat starch: A critical property for understanding electrostatic hazards. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 368:228-233. [PMID: 30682542 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.01.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Wheat starch is a widely used material in the food, pharmaceutical and entertainment industry not considered hazard but recently associated to dust explosions during processing and handling. How an insulating starch grain is charged and how its ability to be polarized is affected by environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and frequency? are fundamental questions that must be explored in order to understand the dust explosion phenomena. Here we investigate the dependence of temperature, humidity and low-frequency on the relative permittivity of wheat starch. We characterized starch at the micro and macro scales using atomic force microscopy-based techniques and capacitive planar sensor-based measurements respectively. The results show high values of permittivity (˜80) at the microscale (single starch grains) compared to the low values (10-20) at the macroscale (20 mg of wheat starch). The differences are attributed to the Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars interfacial polarization process on individual grains and potential charge exchange between grains. Permittivity is a critical property to investigate starch electrostatic hazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Seidel
- Imperial College London, London, SW7 2BP, United Kingdom
| | - O A Castañeda-Uribe
- Vicerrectoría de Investigaciones, Grupo de Investigación en Ingeniería Biomédica (GIIB), Universidad Manuela Beltrán, Bogotá, DC 110231, Colombia
| | - S Arevalo
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering and Centro de Microelectrónica (CMUA), Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
| | - F Muñoz
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
| | - W Proud
- Institute of Shock Physics, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2BP, United Kingdom
| | - A Avila
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering and Centro de Microelectrónica (CMUA), Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia.
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El Khoury D, Arinero R, Laurentie JC, Bechelany M, Ramonda M, Castellon J. Electrostatic force microscopy for the accurate characterization of interphases in nanocomposites. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 9:2999-3012. [PMID: 30591848 PMCID: PMC6296427 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The unusual properties of nanocomposites are commonly explained by the structure of their interphase. Therefore, these nanoscale interphase regions need to be precisely characterized; however, the existing high resolution experimental methods have not been reliably adapted to this purpose. Electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) represents a promising technique to fulfill this objective, although no complete and accurate interphase study has been published to date and EFM signal interpretation is not straightforward. The aim of this work was to establish accurate EFM signal analysis methods to investigate interphases in nanodielectrics using three experimental protocols. Samples with well-known, controllable properties were designed and synthesized to electrostatically model nanodielectrics with the aim of "calibrating" the EFM technique for future interphase studies. EFM was demonstrated to be able to discriminate between alumina and silicon dioxide interphase layers of 50 and 100 nm thickness deposited over polystyrene spheres and different types of matrix materials. Consistent permittivity values were also deduced by comparison of experimental data and numerical simulations, as well as the interface state of silicone dioxide layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana El Khoury
- Institut d’Électronique et des Systèmes, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Richard Arinero
- Institut d’Électronique et des Systèmes, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Mikhaël Bechelany
- Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM - UMR 5635, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Michel Ramonda
- Centre de technologie de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Jérôme Castellon
- Institut d’Électronique et des Systèmes, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
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Collins L, Kilpatrick JI, Kalinin SV, Rodriguez BJ. Towards nanoscale electrical measurements in liquid by advanced KPFM techniques: a review. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2018; 81:086101. [PMID: 29990308 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/aab560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Fundamental mechanisms of energy storage, corrosion, sensing, and multiple biological functionalities are directly coupled to electrical processes and ionic dynamics at solid-liquid interfaces. In many cases, these processes are spatially inhomogeneous taking place at grain boundaries, step edges, point defects, ion channels, etc and possess complex time and voltage dependent dynamics. This necessitates time-resolved and real-space probing of these phenomena. In this review, we discuss the applications of force-sensitive voltage modulated scanning probe microscopy (SPM) for probing electrical phenomena at solid-liquid interfaces. We first describe the working principles behind electrostatic and Kelvin probe force microscopies (EFM & KPFM) at the gas-solid interface, review the state of the art in advanced KPFM methods and developments to (i) overcome limitations of classical KPFM, (ii) expand the information accessible from KPFM, and (iii) extend KPFM operation to liquid environments. We briefly discuss the theoretical framework of electrical double layer (EDL) forces and dynamics, the implications and breakdown of classical EDL models for highly charged interfaces or under high ion concentrations, and describe recent modifications of the classical EDL theory relevant for understanding nanoscale electrical measurements at the solid-liquid interface. We further review the latest achievements in mapping surface charge, dielectric constants, and electrodynamic and electrochemical processes in liquids. Finally, we outline the key challenges and opportunities that exist in the field of nanoscale electrical measurements in liquid as well as providing a roadmap for the future development of liquid KPFM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Collins
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, United States of America. Institute for Functional Imaging of Materials, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, United States of America
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