1
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Koh JYP, Itahana Y, Krah A, Mostafa H, Ong M, Iwamura S, Vincent DM, Radha Krishnan S, Ye W, Yim PWC, Khopade TM, Chen K, Kong PS, Wang LF, Bates RW, Kimura Y, Viswanathan R, Bond PJ, Itahana K. Exploring bat-inspired cyclic tryptophan diketopiperazines as ABCB1 Inhibitors. Commun Chem 2024; 7:158. [PMID: 39003409 PMCID: PMC11246513 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-024-01225-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Chemotherapy-induced drug resistance remains a major cause of cancer recurrence and patient mortality. ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (ABCB1) transporter overexpression in tumors contributes to resistance, yet current ABCB1 inhibitors have been unsuccessful in clinical trials. To address this challenge, we propose a new strategy using tryptophan as a lead molecule for developing ABCB1 inhibitors. Our idea stems from our studies on bat cells, as bats have low cancer incidences and high ABCB1 expression. We hypothesized that potential ABCB1 substrates in bats could act as competitive inhibitors in humans. By molecular simulations of ABCB1-substrate interactions, we generated a benzylated Cyclo-tryptophan (C3N-Dbn-Trp2) that inhibits ABCB1 activity with efficacy comparable to or better than the classical inhibitor, verapamil. C3N-Dbn-Trp2 restored chemotherapy sensitivity in drug-resistant human cancer cells with no adverse effect on cell proliferation. Our unique approach presents a promising lead toward developing effective ABCB1 inhibitors to treat drug-resistant cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Yu Peng Koh
- Programme in Cancer & Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yoko Itahana
- Programme in Cancer & Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Alexander Krah
- Bioinformatics Institute (BII), Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Habib Mostafa
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Mingmin Ong
- Programme in Cancer & Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sahana Iwamura
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Dona Mariya Vincent
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | | | - Weiying Ye
- Programme in Cancer & Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Pierre Wing Chi Yim
- Programme in Cancer & Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Tushar M Khopade
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Kunihiko Chen
- Programme in Cancer & Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Pui San Kong
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lin-Fa Wang
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Roderick W Bates
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yasuhisa Kimura
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Rajesh Viswanathan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - Peter J Bond
- Bioinformatics Institute (BII), Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore.
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Koji Itahana
- Programme in Cancer & Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore.
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2
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Miller ET, Tsodikov OV, Garneau-Tsodikova S. Structural insights into the diverse prenylating capabilities of DMATS prenyltransferases. Nat Prod Rep 2024; 41:113-147. [PMID: 37929638 DOI: 10.1039/d3np00036b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Covering: 2009 up to August 2023Prenyltransferases (PTs) are involved in the primary and the secondary metabolism of plants, bacteria, and fungi, and they are key enzymes in the biosynthesis of many clinically relevant natural products (NPs). The continued biochemical and structural characterization of the soluble dimethylallyl tryptophan synthase (DMATS) PTs over the past two decades have revealed the significant promise that these enzymes hold as biocatalysts for the chemoenzymatic synthesis of novel drug leads. This is a comprehensive review of DMATSs describing the structure-function relationships that have shaped the mechanistic underpinnings of these enzymes, as well as the application of this knowledge to the engineering of DMATSs. We summarize the key findings and lessons learned from these studies over the past 14 years (2009-2023). In addition, we identify current gaps in our understanding of these fascinating enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan T Miller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536-0596, USA.
| | - Oleg V Tsodikov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536-0596, USA.
| | - Sylvie Garneau-Tsodikova
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536-0596, USA.
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3
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Abstract
Covering: from 2000 up to the very early part of 2023S-Adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is a naturally occurring trialkyl sulfonium molecule that is typically associated with biological methyltransfer reactions. However, SAM is also known to donate methylene, aminocarboxypropyl, adenosyl and amino moieties during natural product biosynthetic reactions. The reaction scope is further expanded as SAM itself can be modified prior to the group transfer such that a SAM-derived carboxymethyl or aminopropyl moiety can also be transferred. Moreover, the sulfonium cation in SAM has itself been found to be critical for several other enzymatic transformations. Thus, while many SAM-dependent enzymes are characterized by a methyltransferase fold, not all of them are necessarily methyltransferases. Furthermore, other SAM-dependent enzymes do not possess such a structural feature suggesting diversification along different evolutionary lineages. Despite the biological versatility of SAM, it nevertheless parallels the chemistry of sulfonium compounds used in organic synthesis. The question thus becomes how enzymes catalyze distinct transformations via subtle differences in their active sites. This review summarizes recent advances in the discovery of novel SAM utilizing enzymes that rely on Lewis acid/base chemistry as opposed to radical mechanisms of catalysis. The examples are categorized based on the presence of a methyltransferase fold and the role played by SAM within the context of known sulfonium chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hsuan Lee
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
| | - Daan Ren
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
| | - Byungsun Jeon
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
| | - Hung-Wen Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
- Division of Chemical Biology & Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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4
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Chang X, Zhang F, Zhu S, Yang Z, Feng X, Liu Y. Photoredox-catalyzed diastereoselective dearomative prenylation and reverse-prenylation of electron-deficient indole derivatives. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3876. [PMID: 37391418 PMCID: PMC10313782 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39633-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Prenylated and reverse-prenylated indolines are privileged scaffolds in numerous naturally occurring indole alkaloids with a broad spectrum of important biological properties. Development of straightforward and stereoselective methods to enable the synthesis of structurally diverse prenylated and reverse-prenylated indoline derivatives is highly desirable and challenging. In this context, the most direct approaches to achieve this goal generally rely on transition-metal-catalyzed dearomative allylic alkylation of electron-rich indoles. However, the electron-deficient indoles are much less explored, probably due to their diminished nucleophilicity. Herein, a photoredox-catalyzed tandem Giese radical addition/Ireland-Claisen rearrangement is disclosed. Diastereoselective dearomative prenylation and reverse-prenylation of electron-deficient indoles proceed smoothly under mild conditions. An array of tertiary α-silylamines as radical precursors is readily incorporated in 2,3-disubstituted indolines with high functional compatibility and excellent diastereoselectivity (>20:1 d.r.). The corresponding transformations of the secondary α-silylamines provide the biologically important lactam-fused indolines in one-pot synthesis. Subsequently, a plausible photoredox pathway is proposed based on control experiments. The preliminary bioactivity study reveals a potential anticancer property of these structurally appealing indolines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuexue Chang
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518132, China
| | - Fangqing Zhang
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518132, China
| | - Shibo Zhu
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518132, China
| | - Zhuang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiaoming Feng
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518132, China.
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry & Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China.
| | - Yangbin Liu
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518132, China.
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5
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Deletti G, Green SD, Weber C, Patterson KN, Joshi SS, Khopade TM, Coban M, Veek-Wilson J, Caulfield TR, Viswanathan R, Lane AL. Unveiling an indole alkaloid diketopiperazine biosynthetic pathway that features a unique stereoisomerase and multifunctional methyltransferase. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2558. [PMID: 37137876 PMCID: PMC10156859 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38168-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The 2,5-diketopiperazines are a prominent class of bioactive molecules. The nocardioazines are actinomycete natural products that feature a pyrroloindoline diketopiperazine scaffold composed of two D-tryptophan residues functionalized by N- and C-methylation, prenylation, and diannulation. Here we identify and characterize the nocardioazine B biosynthetic pathway from marine Nocardiopsis sp. CMB-M0232 by using heterologous biotransformations, in vitro biochemical assays, and macromolecular modeling. Assembly of the cyclo-L-Trp-L-Trp diketopiperazine precursor is catalyzed by a cyclodipeptide synthase. A separate genomic locus encodes tailoring of this precursor and includes an aspartate/glutamate racemase homolog as an unusual D/L isomerase acting upon diketopiperazine substrates, a phytoene synthase-like prenyltransferase as the catalyst of indole alkaloid diketopiperazine prenylation, and a rare dual function methyltransferase as the catalyst of both N- and C-methylation as the final steps of nocardioazine B biosynthesis. The biosynthetic paradigms revealed herein showcase Nature's molecular ingenuity and lay the foundation for diketopiperazine diversification via biocatalytic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett Deletti
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Sajan D Green
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Caleb Weber
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Kristen N Patterson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Swapnil S Joshi
- Departments of Chemistry & Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Tushar M Khopade
- Departments of Chemistry & Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Mathew Coban
- Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - James Veek-Wilson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Thomas R Caulfield
- Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Rajesh Viswanathan
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA.
- Departments of Chemistry & Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - Amy L Lane
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA.
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6
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Khopade TM, Ajayan K, Vincent DM, Lane AL, Viswanathan R. Biomimetic Total Synthesis of (+)-Nocardioazine B and Analogs. J Org Chem 2022; 87:11519-11533. [PMID: 35960860 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c01120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Nocardioazines A and B are prenylated, bioactive pyrroloindoline natural products, isolated from Nocardiopsis, with a desymmetrized cyclo-d-Trp-d-Trp DKP core. Based on our deeper biosynthetic understanding, a biomimetic total synthesis of (+)-nocardioazine B is accomplished in merely seven steps and 23.2% overall yield. This pathway accesses regio- and stereoselectively C3-isoprenylated analogs of (+)-nocardioazine B, using the same number of steps and in similar efficiency. The successful strategy mandated that the biomimetic C3-prenylation step be executed early. The use of an unprotected carboxylic acid of Trp led to high diastereoselectivity toward formation of key intermediates exo-12a, exo-12b, and exo-12c (>19:1). Evidence shows that N1-methylation causes the prenylation reaction to bifurcate away to result in a C2-normal-prenylated isomer. Nocardioazine A, possessing an isoprenoidal-epoxide bridge, inhibits P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated membrane efflux, in multidrug-resistant mammalian colon cancer cells. As several P-gp inhibitors have failed due to their toxicity effects, endogenous amino-acid-derived noncytotoxic inhibitors (from the nocardioazine core) are worthy leads toward a rejuvenated strategy against resistant carcinomas. This total synthesis provides direct access to Trp-derived isoprenylated DKP natural products and their derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tushar M Khopade
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517507, India
| | - Kalyani Ajayan
- Department of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517507, India
| | - Dona Mariya Vincent
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517507, India
| | - Amy L Lane
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, Florida 32224, United States
| | - Rajesh Viswanathan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517507, India.,Department of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517507, India
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7
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Hamdy SA, Kodama T, Nakashima Y, Han X, Morita H. Catalytic potential of a fungal indole prenyltransferase toward β-carbolines, harmine and harman, and their prenylation effects on antibacterial activity. J Biosci Bioeng 2022; 134:311-317. [PMID: 35931602 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2022.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The prenylation of compounds has attracted much attention, since it often adds bioactivity to non-prenylated compounds. We employed an enzyme assay with CdpNPT, an indole prenyltransferase from Aspergillus fumigatus with two naturally occurring β-carbolines, harmine (3) and harman (4) as prenyl acceptors, in the presence of dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) as the prenyl donor. The enzyme accepted these two prenyl acceptor substrates to produce 6-(3',3'-dimethylallyl)harmine (5) from 3 and 9-(3',3'-dimethylallyl)harman (6) and 6-(3',3'-dimethylallyl)harman (7) from 4. The X-ray crystal structure analysis of the CdpNPT (38-440) truncated mutant complexed with 4, and docking simulation studies of DMAPP to the crystal structure of the CdpNPT (38-440) mutant, suggested that CdpNPT could employ the two-step prenylation mechanism to produce 7, while the enzyme produced 6 with either one- or two-step prenylation mechanisms. Furthermore, the antibacterial assays revealed that the 3',3'-dimethylallylation of 3 and 4, as well as harmol (1), at C-6 enhanced the activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherif Ahmed Hamdy
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini St., Cairo 11562, Egypt; Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, 2630-Sugitani, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Takeshi Kodama
- Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, 2630-Sugitani, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Yu Nakashima
- Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, 2630-Sugitani, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Xiaojie Han
- Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, 2630-Sugitani, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Morita
- Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, 2630-Sugitani, Toyama 930-0194, Japan.
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8
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Hu YC, Min XT, Ji DW, Chen QA. Catalytic prenylation and reverse prenylation of aromatics. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2022.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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9
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Malit JJL, Wu C, Tian X, Liu W, Huang D, Sung HHY, Liu LL, Williams ID, Qian PY. Griseocazines: Neuroprotective Multiprenylated Cyclodipeptides Identified through Targeted Genome Mining. Org Lett 2022; 24:2967-2972. [PMID: 35436125 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.2c00745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Prenylation can impart pharmacological advantages to bioactive compounds. Global genome mining for prenylated cyclodipeptides identified a gczABC BGC from Streptomyces griseocarneus 132 containing a cyclodipeptide synthase and two prenyltransferase genes. Subsequent heterologous expression allowed isolation and characterization of griseocazines, which displayed potent neuroprotective activity. Further biotransformation analyses revealed that prenyltransferases GczB and GczC catalyzed the stereospecific prenylation of cWW and attached geranyl and farnesyl groups to a cyclodipeptide scaffold, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessie James Limlingan Malit
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Ocean Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
| | - Chuanhai Wu
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Ocean Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
| | - Xueying Tian
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Ocean Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
| | - Wenchao Liu
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Ocean Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
| | - Duli Huang
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Ocean Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
| | - Herman H-Y Sung
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
| | - Ling-Li Liu
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University 22 Xinong Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Ian D Williams
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
| | - Pei-Yuan Qian
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China.,Department of Ocean Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong HKG, China
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10
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Liu Q, Han F, Zhuang H, Zhang T, Ji N, Miao C. Direct deoxygenation of active allylic alcohols via metal-free catalysis. Org Biomol Chem 2022; 20:1680-1689. [DOI: 10.1039/d1ob02168k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Direct metal-free deoxygenation of highly active allylic alcohols catalyzed by a Brønsted acid was achieved, which avoids tedious reaction steps and eliminates metal contamination. By examining a series of Brønsted...
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11
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Scarel M, Marchesan S. Diketopiperazine Gels: New Horizons from the Self-Assembly of Cyclic Dipeptides. Molecules 2021; 26:3376. [PMID: 34204905 PMCID: PMC8199760 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclodipeptides (CDPs) or 2,5-diketopiperazines (DKPs) can exert a variety of biological activities and display pronounced resistance against enzymatic hydrolysis as well as a propensity towards self-assembly into gels, relative to the linear-dipeptide counterparts. They have attracted great interest in a variety of fields spanning from functional materials to drug discovery. This concise review will analyze the latest advancements in their synthesis, self-assembly into gels, and their more innovative applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Scarel
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 1, 34127 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Silvia Marchesan
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 1, 34127 Trieste, Italy;
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy
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