1
|
Zuliska S, Maksum IP, Einaga Y, Kadja GTM, Irkham I. Advances in electrochemical biosensors employing carbon-based electrodes for detection of biomarkers in diabetes mellitus. ADMET AND DMPK 2024; 12:487-527. [PMID: 39091901 PMCID: PMC11289508 DOI: 10.5599/admet.2361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and purpose The increase in diabetes cases has become a major concern in the healthcare sector, necessitating the development of efficient and minimal diagnostic methods. This study aims to provide a comprehensive examination of electrochemical biosensors for detecting diabetes mellitus biomarkers, with a special focus on the utilization of carbon-based electrodes. Review approach A detailed analysis of electrochemical biosensors incorporating various carbon electrodes, including screen-printed carbon electrodes, glassy carbon electrodes, and carbon paste electrodes, is presented. The advantages of carbon-based electrodes in biosensor design are highlighted. The review covers the detection of several key diabetes biomarkers, such as glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), glycated human serum albumin (GHSA), insulin, and novel biomarkers. Key results Recent developments in electrochemical biosensor technology over the last decade are summarized, emphasizing their potential in clinical applications, particularly in point-of-care settings. The utilization of carbon-based electrodes in biosensors is shown to offer significant advantages, including enhanced sensitivity, selectivity, and cost-effectiveness. Conclusion This review underscores the importance of carbon-based electrodes in the design of electrochemical biosensors and raises awareness for the detection of novel biomarkers for more specific and personalized diabetes mellitus cases. The advancements in this field highlight the potential of these biosensors in future clinical applications, especially in point-of-care diagnostics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Serly Zuliska
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Bandung 40173, Indonesia
| | - Iman Permana Maksum
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Bandung 40173, Indonesia
| | - Yasuaki Einaga
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama, 223-8522, Japan
| | - Grandprix Thomreys Marth Kadja
- Division of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl. Ganesha no. 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
- Research Center for Nanosciences and Nanotechnology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl. Ganesha no. 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
| | - Irkham Irkham
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Bandung 40173, Indonesia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kogularasu S, Lin WC, Lee YY, Huang BW, Chen YL, Chang-Chien GP, Sheu JK. Advancements in electrochemical biosensing of cardiovascular disease biomarkers. J Mater Chem B 2024; 12:6305-6327. [PMID: 38912548 DOI: 10.1039/d4tb00333k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) stand as a predominant global health concern, introducing vast socioeconomic challenges. In addressing this pressing dilemma, enhanced diagnostic modalities have become paramount, positioning electrochemical biosensing as an instrumental innovation. This comprehensive review navigates the multifaceted terrain of CVDs, elucidating their defining characteristics, clinical manifestations, therapeutic avenues, and intrinsic risk factors. Notable emphasis is placed on pivotal diagnostic tools, spotlighting cardiac biomarkers distinguished by their unmatched clinical precision in terms of relevance, sensitivity, and specificity. Highlighting the broader repercussions of CVDs, there emerges an accentuated need for refined diagnostic strategies. Such an exploration segues into a profound analysis of electrochemical biosensing, encapsulating its foundational principles, diverse classifications, and integral components, notably recognition molecules and transducers. Contemporary advancements in biosensing technologies are brought to the fore, emphasizing pioneering electrode architectures, cutting-edge signal amplification processes, and the synergistic integration of biosensors with microfluidic platforms. At the core of this discourse is the demonstrated proficiency of biosensors in detecting cardiovascular anomalies, underpinned by empirical case studies, systematic evaluations, and clinical insights. As the narrative unfolds, it addresses an array of inherent challenges, spanning intricate technicalities, real-world applicability constraints, and regulatory considerations, finally, by casting an anticipatory gaze upon the future of electrochemical biosensing, heralding a new era of diagnostic tools primed to revolutionize cardiovascular healthcare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sakthivel Kogularasu
- Super Micro Mass Research and Technology Center, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan.
- Center for Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Ching Lin
- Department of Neuroradiology, E-da Hospital, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 84001, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, E-da Hospital, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 84001, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Yi Lee
- Super Micro Mass Research and Technology Center, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan.
- Center for Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan
- Institute of Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan
| | - Bo-Wun Huang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Lung Chen
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Guo-Ping Chang-Chien
- Super Micro Mass Research and Technology Center, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan.
- Center for Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan
- Institute of Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833301, Taiwan
| | - Jinn-Kong Sheu
- Department of Photonics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shariati L, Esmaeili Y, Rahimmanesh I, Babolmorad S, Ziaei G, Hasan A, Boshtam M, Makvandi P. Advances in nanobased platforms for cardiovascular diseases: Early diagnosis, imaging, treatment, and tissue engineering. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 238:116933. [PMID: 37652218 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) present a significant threat to health, with traditional therapeutics based treatment being hindered by inefficiencies, limited biological effects, and resistance to conventional drug. Addressing these challenges requires advanced approaches for early disease diagnosis and therapy. Nanotechnology and nanomedicine have emerged as promising avenues for personalized CVD diagnosis and treatment through theranostic agents. Nanoparticles serve as nanodevices or nanocarriers, efficiently transporting drugs to injury sites. These nanocarriers offer the potential for precise drug and gene delivery, overcoming issues like bioavailability and solubility. By attaching specific target molecules to nanoparticle surfaces, controlled drug release to targeted areas becomes feasible. In the field of cardiology, nanoplatforms have gained popularity due to their attributes, such as passive or active targeting of cardiac tissues, enhanced sensitivity and specificity, and easy penetration into heart and artery tissues due to their small size. However, concerns persist about the immunogenicity and cytotoxicity of nanomaterials, necessitating careful consideration. Nanoparticles also hold promise for CVD diagnosis and imaging, enabling straightforward diagnostic procedures and real-time tracking during therapy. Nanotechnology has revolutionized cardiovascular imaging, yielding multimodal and multifunctional vehicles that outperform traditional methods. The paper provides an overview of nanomaterial delivery routes, targeting techniques, and recent advances in treating, diagnosing, and engineering tissues for CVDs. It also discusses the future potential of nanomaterials in CVDs, including theranostics, aiming to enhance cardiovascular treatment in clinical practice. Ultimately, refining nanocarriers and delivery methods has the potential to enhance treatment effectiveness, minimize side effects, and improve patients' well-being and outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laleh Shariati
- Department of Biomaterials, Nanotechnology, and Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran; Applied Physiology Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Yasaman Esmaeili
- Biosensor Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Ilnaz Rahimmanesh
- Applied Physiology Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Shahrzad Babolmorad
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ghazal Ziaei
- Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Anwarul Hasan
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, 2713, Qatar; Biomedical Research Center, Qatar University, Doha, 2713, Qatar
| | - Maryam Boshtam
- Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Pooyan Makvandi
- The Quzhou Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Quzhou People's Hospital, Quzhou, 324000, Zhejiang, China; School of Engineering, Institute for Bioengineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JL, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gopal N, Chauhan N, Jain U, Dass SK, Sharma HS, Chandra R. Advancement in biomarker based effective diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. ARTIFICIAL CELLS, NANOMEDICINE, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 51:476-490. [PMID: 37656048 DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2023.2252016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Neonatal sepsis is considered as alarming medical emergency and becomes the common global reason of neonatal mortality. Non-specific symptoms and limitations of conventional diagnostic methods for neonatal sepsis mandate fast and reliable method to diagnose disease for point of care application. Recently, disease specific biomarkers have gained interest for rapid diagnosis that led to the development of electrochemical biosensor with enhanced specificity, sensitivity, cost-effectiveness and user-friendliness. Other than conventional biomarker C-reactive protein to diagnose neonatal sepsis, several potential biomarkers including Procalcitonin (PCT), Serum amyloid A (SAA) and other candidates are extensively investigated. The present review provides insights on advancements and diagnostic abilities of protein and nucleotide based biomarkers with their incorporation in developing electrochemical biosensors by employing novel fabrication strategies. This review provides an overview of most promising biomarker and its capability for neonatal sepsis diagnosis to fulfil future demand to develop electrochemical biosensor for point-of-care applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neha Gopal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Nidhi Chauhan
- Amity Institute of Nanotechnology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Utkarsh Jain
- Amity Institute of Nanotechnology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sujata K Dass
- Department of Neurology, BLK Super Speciality Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Hari S Sharma
- Department of Pathology and Clinical Bioinformatics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ramesh Chandra
- Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
- Institute of Nanomedical Sciences (INMS), University of Delhi, Delhi, India
- Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kumar N, Lin YJ, Huang YC, Liao YT, Lin SP. Detection of lactate in human sweat via surface-modified, screen-printed carbon electrodes. Talanta 2023; 265:124888. [PMID: 37393714 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.124888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Real-time and continuous monitoring of lactate levels in sweat has been used as an indicator of physiological information to evaluate exercise outcomes and sports performance. We developed an optimal enzyme-based biosensor to detect the concentrations of lactate in different fluids (i.e., a buffer solution and human sweat). The surface of the screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) was first treated with oxygen plasma and then surface-modified by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). The optimal sensing surface of the LDH-modified SPCE was identified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis. After connecting the LDH-modified SPCE to a benchtop E4980A precision LCR meter, our results showed that the measured response was dependent on the lactate concentration. The recorded data exhibited a broad dynamic range of 0.1-100 mM (R2 = 0.95) and a limit of detection of 0.1 mM, which was unachievable without the incorporation of redox species. A state-of-the-art electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) chip was developed to integrate the LDH-modified SPCE for a portable bioelectronic platform in the detection of lactate in human sweat. We believe the optimal sensing surface can improve the sensitivity of lactate sensing in a portable bioelectronic EIS platform for early diagnosis or real-time monitoring during different physical activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nitish Kumar
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yi-Jie Lin
- Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300093, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yu-Chiao Huang
- Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300093, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yu-Te Liao
- Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300093, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shu-Ping Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan, ROC.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhang L, Qin D, Feng J, Tang T, Cheng H. Rapid quantitative detection of luteolin using an electrochemical sensor based on electrospinning of carbon nanofibers doped with single-walled carbon nanoangles. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2023. [PMID: 37318338 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00497j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In this study, single-walled carbon nanoangles/carbon nanofibers (SWCNHs/CNFs) were synthesized by electrospinning, followed by annealing in a N2 atmosphere. The synthesized composite was structurally characterized by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The electrochemical sensor was fabricated by modifying a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) for luteolin detection, and its electrochemical characteristics were investigated using differential pulse voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, and chronocoulometry. Under optimized conditions, the response range of the electrochemical sensor to luteolin was 0.01-50 μM, and the detection limit was 3.714 nM (S/N = 3). The SWCNHs/CNFs/GCE sensor showed excellent selectivity, repeatability, and reproducibility, thus enabling the development of an economical and practical electrochemical method for the detection of luteolin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Zhang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Green Processing of Sugar Resources, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, Guangxi Province, P. R. China.
| | - Danfeng Qin
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Green Processing of Sugar Resources, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, Guangxi Province, P. R. China.
- School of Medicine, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, Guangxi Province, P. R. China
| | - Jun Feng
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Green Processing of Sugar Resources, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, Guangxi Province, P. R. China.
- School of Medicine, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, Guangxi Province, P. R. China
| | - Tingfan Tang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Green Processing of Sugar Resources, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, Guangxi Province, P. R. China.
| | - Hao Cheng
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Green Processing of Sugar Resources, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, Guangxi Province, P. R. China.
- Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center of Sugarcane and Sugar Industry, Nanning 530004, Guangxi Province, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gomez Cardoso A, Rahin Ahmed S, Keshavarz-Motamed Z, Srinivasan S, Reza Rajabzadeh A. Recent advancements of nanomodified electrodes - Towards point-of-care detection of cardiac biomarkers. Bioelectrochemistry 2023; 152:108440. [PMID: 37060706 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2023.108440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
The increasing number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases has become a substantial concern in both developed and underdeveloped countries. Rapid and on-site monitoring of this disease is urgently important to control, prevent and make awareness of public health. Recently, a lot of focus has been placed on nanomaterials and modify these nanomaterials have been explored to detect cardiac biomarkers. By implementing biosensors that are modified with novel recognition elements and more stable nanomaterials, the use of electrochemistry for point-of-care devices is more realistic every day. This review focuses on the current state of nanomaterials conjugated biorecognition elements (enzyme integrated with nanomaterials, antibody conjugated nanomaterials and aptamer conjugated nanomaterials) for electrochemical cardiovascular disease detection. Specifically, a lot of attention has been given to the trends toward more stable biosensors that have increased the potential to be used as point-of-care devices for the detection of cardiac biomarkers due to their high stability and specificity. Moreover, the recent progress on biomolecule-free electrochemical nanosensors for cardiovascular disease detection has been considered. At last, the possibility and drawbacks of some of these techniques for point-of-care cardiac device development in the future have been discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Gomez Cardoso
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Syed Rahin Ahmed
- W Booth School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Zahra Keshavarz-Motamed
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Seshasai Srinivasan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada; W Booth School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada.
| | - Amin Reza Rajabzadeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada; W Booth School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Pohanka M. Diagnoses Based on C-Reactive Protein Point-of-Care Tests. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12050344. [PMID: 35624645 PMCID: PMC9138282 DOI: 10.3390/bios12050344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
C-reactive protein (CRP) is an important part of the immune system's reaction to various pathological impulses such as bacterial infections, systemic inflammation, and internal organ failures. An increased CRP level serves to diagnose the mentioned pathological states. Both standard laboratory methods and simple point-of-care devices such as lateral flow tests and immunoturbidimetric assays serve for the instrumental diagnoses based on CRP. The current method for CRP has many flaws and limitations in its use. Biosensor and bioassay analytical devices are presently researched by many teams to provide more sensitive and better-suited tools for point-of-care tests of CRP in biological samples when compared to the standard methods. This review article is focused on mapping the diagnostical relevance of CRP, the applicability of the current analytical methods, and the recent innovations in the measurement of CRP level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miroslav Pohanka
- Faculty of Military Health Sciences, University of Defense, Trebesska 1575, CZ-50001 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Graphene-Based Biosensors for Molecular Chronic Inflammatory Disease Biomarker Detection. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12040244. [PMID: 35448304 PMCID: PMC9030187 DOI: 10.3390/bios12040244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Chronic inflammatory diseases, such as cancer, diabetes mellitus, stroke, ischemic heart diseases, neurodegenerative conditions, and COVID-19 have had a high number of deaths worldwide in recent years. The accurate detection of the biomarkers for chronic inflammatory diseases can significantly improve diagnosis, as well as therapy and clinical care in patients. Graphene derivative materials (GDMs), such as pristine graphene (G), graphene oxide (GO), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), have shown tremendous benefits for biosensing and in the development of novel biosensor devices. GDMs exhibit excellent chemical, electrical and mechanical properties, good biocompatibility, and the facility of surface modification for biomolecular recognition, opening new opportunities for simple, accurate, and sensitive detection of biomarkers. This review shows the recent advances, properties, and potentialities of GDMs for developing robust biosensors. We show the main electrochemical and optical-sensing methods based on GDMs, as well as their design and manufacture in order to integrate them into robust, wearable, remote, and smart biosensors devices. We also describe the current application of such methods and technologies for the biosensing of chronic disease biomarkers. We also describe the current application of such methods and technologies for the biosensing of chronic disease biomarkers with improved sensitivity, reaching limits of detection from the nano to atto range concentration.
Collapse
|