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Jung HI, Choi H, Song YJ, Kim JH, Yoon Y. Synergistic augmentation and fundamental mechanistic exploration of β-Ga 2O 3-rGO photocatalyst for efficient CO 2 reduction. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2024; 6:4611-4624. [PMID: 39263398 PMCID: PMC11385812 DOI: 10.1039/d4na00408f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/14/2024] [Indexed: 09/13/2024]
Abstract
We explore the novel photodecomposition capabilities of β-Ga2O3 when augmented with reduced graphene oxide (rGO). Employing real-time spectroscopy, this study unveils the sophisticated mechanisms of photodecomposition, identifying an optimal 1 wt% β-Ga2O3-rGO ratio that substantially elevates the degradation efficiency of Methylene Blue (MB). Our findings illuminate a direct relationship between the photocatalyst's composition and its performance, with the quantity of rGO synthesis notably influencing the catalyst's morphology and consequently, its photodegradation potency. The 1 wt% β-Ga2O3-rGO composition stands out in its class, showing a notable 4.7-fold increase in CO production over pristine β-Ga2O3 and achieving CO selectivity above 98%. This remarkable performance is a testament to the significant improvements rendered by our novel rGO integration technique. Such promising results highlight the potential of our custom-designed β-Ga2O3-rGO photocatalyst for critical environmental applications, representing a substantial leap forward in photocatalytic technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-In Jung
- Korea Aerospace University, Department of Materials Engineering Goyang Republic of Korea
| | - Hangyeol Choi
- Korea Aerospace University, Department of Materials Engineering Goyang Republic of Korea
| | - Yu-Jin Song
- Dong-A University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering Busan Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Han Kim
- Dong-A University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering Busan Republic of Korea
| | - Yohan Yoon
- Korea Aerospace University, Department of Materials Engineering Goyang Republic of Korea
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2
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Ojha N, Thakkar K, Bajpai A, Joshi K, Kumar S. Photoinduced CO 2 and N 2 reductions on plasmonically enabled gallium oxide. J Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 629:654-666. [PMID: 36183645 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.09.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Ag-containing ZnO/ β-Ga2O3 semiconductor, which exhibit reduced bandgap, increased light absorption, and hydrophilicity, have been found to be useful for photocatalytic CO2 reduction and N2 fixation by water. The charge-separation is facilitated by the new interfaces and inherent vacancies. The Ag@GaZn demonstrated the highest photocurrent response, about 20- and 2.27-folds that of the Ga and GaZn samples, respectively. CO, CH4, and H2 formed as products for photo-reduction of CO2. Ag@GaZn catalyst exhibited the highest AQY of 0.121 % at 400 nm (31.2 W/m2). Also, Ag@GaZn generated 740 μmolg-1 of NH4+ ions, which was about 18-folds higher than Ga sample. In situ DRIFTS for isotopic-labelled 13CO2 and 15N2 reaffirmed the photo-activity of as-synthesized catalysts. Density functional theory provided insight into the relative affinity of different planes of heterostructures towards H2O, CO2 and N2 molecules. The structure-photoactivity rationale behind the intriguing Ag@GaZn sample offers a fundamental insight into the role of plasmonic Ag and design principle of heterostructure with improved photoactivity and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niwesh Ojha
- Gas-Solid Interaction Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihta, Patna 801 106, Bihar, India
| | - Kavita Thakkar
- Physical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Sector 19, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Abhinav Bajpai
- Gas-Solid Interaction Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihta, Patna 801 106, Bihar, India
| | - Kavita Joshi
- Physical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Sector 19, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Sushant Kumar
- Gas-Solid Interaction Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihta, Patna 801 106, Bihar, India.
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3
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Dong S, Tan Z, Chen Q, Huang G, Wu L, Bi J. Cobalt quantum dots as electron collectors in ultra-narrow bandgap dioxin linked covalent organic frameworks for boosting photocatalytic solar-to-fuel conversion. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 628:573-582. [PMID: 36007422 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.08.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Photocatalysis offers a sustainable paradigm for solar-to-fuel conversion because it conflates the merits of renewable solar energy and reusable catalysts. However, the seek for robust photocatalysts that can utilize the full visible light spectrum remains challenging. Herein, cobalt quantum dots (Co QDs) were integrated into ultra-narrow bandgap dioxin linked covalent organic frameworks (COF-318) for photocatalytic solar-to-fuel conversion under full spectrum of visible light irradiation. The optimal Co10-COF exhibited superior photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance, affording a CO yield of 4232 µmol∙g-1∙h-1 and H2 evolution of 6611 µmol∙g-1∙h-1. Specifically, Co QDs played a crucial role in boosting the photocatalytic performance, which acted as electron collectors to capture the photoinduced electrons and then conveyed them to CO2 molecules. Moreover, the Co QDs modification significantly improved the CO2 adsorption and activation capacity, as well as prolonging the lifetime of photogenerated carriers. This work reveals an operable pathway for fabricating promising photocatalyst for visible-light-driven solar-to-fuel generation and provides insight into the impact of the integration of Co QDs on COF-based photocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaofeng Dong
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Minhou, Fujian 350108, PR China
| | - Zunkun Tan
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Minhou, Fujian 350108, PR China
| | - Qiaoshan Chen
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Minhou, Fujian 350108, PR China.
| | - Guocheng Huang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Minhou, Fujian 350108, PR China
| | - Ling Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, Fuzhou University, Minhou, Fujian 350108, PR China
| | - Jinhong Bi
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Minhou, Fujian 350108, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, Fuzhou University, Minhou, Fujian 350108, PR China.
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4
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Flowery ln2MnSe4 Novel Electrocatalyst Developed via Anion Exchange Strategy for Efficient Water Splitting. NANOMATERIALS 2022; 12:nano12132209. [PMID: 35808045 PMCID: PMC9268370 DOI: 10.3390/nano12132209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Oxygen and hydrogen generated by water electrolysis may be utilized as a clean chemical fuel with high gravimetric energy density and energy conversion efficiency. The hydrogen fuel will be the alternative to traditional fossil fuels in the future, which are near to exhaustion and cause pollution. In the present study, flowery-shaped In2MnSe4 nanoelectrocatalyst is fabricated by anion exchange reaction directly grown on nickel foam (NF) in 1.0 M KOH medium for oxygen evolution reaction (OER). The physiochemical and electrical characterization techniques are used to investigate the chemical structure, morphology, and electrical properties of the In2MnSe4 material. The electrochemical result indicates that synthesized material exhibits a smaller value of Tafel slope (86 mV/dec), lower overpotential (259 mV), and high stability for 37 h with small deterioration in the current density for a long time. Hence, the fabricated material responds with an extraordinary performance for the OER process and for many other applications in the future.
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5
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Aoki T, Yamamoto M, Tanabe T, Yoshida T. Mixed phases of GaOOH/β-Ga 2O 3 and α-Ga 2O 3/β-Ga 2O 3 prepared by high energy ball milling as active photocatalysts for CO 2 reduction with water. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj05245d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The H2 production rates increased with SSA, irrespective of the phases, while the CO production rates increased with the abundance of α-Ga2O3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomomi Aoki
- Applied Chemistry and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka City University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Muneaki Yamamoto
- Research Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Osaka City University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Tanabe
- Research Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Osaka City University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Tomoko Yoshida
- Research Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Osaka City University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
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6
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Sonoda K, Yamamoto M, Tanabe T, Yoshida T. Synthesis of α-Ga 2O 3 by Water Oxidation of Metallic Gallium as a Photocatalyst for CO 2 Reduction with Water. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:18876-18880. [PMID: 34337227 PMCID: PMC8320144 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c02088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We have succeeded to synthesize gallium oxide consisting of α-phase (α-Ga2O3) with the calcination of GaOOH obtained by a direct reaction of liquid Ga metal with water for the first time and found that α-Ga2O3 exhibits photocatalytic activity for CO2 reduction with water and water splitting as well. The calcination above 623 K converted GaOOH to α-Ga2O3, and the samples calcined at 723-823 K were well crystallized to α-Ga2O3 and promoted photocatalytic CO2 reduction with water, producing CO, H2, and O2. This is observed for the first time that α-Ga2O3 without a cocatalyst has shown very high photocatalytic activity for the conversion of CO2 to CO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Sonoda
- Graduate
School of Engineering, Osaka City University, 3-3-138, Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Muneaki Yamamoto
- Research
Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Osaka
City University, 3-3-138,
Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Tanabe
- Research
Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Osaka
City University, 3-3-138,
Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Tomoko Yoshida
- Research
Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Osaka
City University, 3-3-138,
Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
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7
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Plesco I, Ciobanu V, Braniste T, Ursaki V, Rasch F, Sarua A, Raevschi S, Adelung R, Dutta J, Tiginyanu I. Highly Porous and Ultra-Lightweight Aero-Ga 2O 3: Enhancement of Photocatalytic Activity by Noble Metals. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:1985. [PMID: 33921020 PMCID: PMC8071440 DOI: 10.3390/ma14081985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
A new type of photocatalyst is proposed on the basis of aero-β-Ga2O3, which is a material constructed from a network of interconnected tetrapods with arms in the form of microtubes with nanometric walls. The aero-Ga2O3 material is obtained by annealing of aero-GaN fabricated by epitaxial growth on ZnO microtetrapods. The hybrid structures composed of aero-Ga2O3 functionalized with Au or Pt nanodots were tested for the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye under UV or visible light illumination. The functionalization of aero-Ga2O3 with noble metals results in the enhancement of the photocatalytic performances of bare material, reaching the performances inherent to ZnO while gaining the advantage of the increased chemical stability. The mechanisms of enhancement of the photocatalytic properties by activating aero-Ga2O3 with noble metals are discussed to elucidate their potential for environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Plesco
- National Center for Materials Study and Testing, Technical University of Moldova, Stefan cel Mare Av. 168, MD-2004 Chisinau, Moldova; (V.C.); (T.B.); (V.U.)
| | - Vladimir Ciobanu
- National Center for Materials Study and Testing, Technical University of Moldova, Stefan cel Mare Av. 168, MD-2004 Chisinau, Moldova; (V.C.); (T.B.); (V.U.)
| | - Tudor Braniste
- National Center for Materials Study and Testing, Technical University of Moldova, Stefan cel Mare Av. 168, MD-2004 Chisinau, Moldova; (V.C.); (T.B.); (V.U.)
| | - Veaceslav Ursaki
- National Center for Materials Study and Testing, Technical University of Moldova, Stefan cel Mare Av. 168, MD-2004 Chisinau, Moldova; (V.C.); (T.B.); (V.U.)
| | - Florian Rasch
- Functional Nanomaterials, Institute for Materials Science, Kiel University, Kaiser Str. 2, 24143 Kiel, Germany; (F.R.); (R.A.)
| | - Andrei Sarua
- H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, School of Physics, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TL, UK;
| | - Simion Raevschi
- Department of Physics and Engineering, State University of Moldova, Alexei Mateevici Str. 60, MD-2009 Chisinau, Moldova;
| | - Rainer Adelung
- Functional Nanomaterials, Institute for Materials Science, Kiel University, Kaiser Str. 2, 24143 Kiel, Germany; (F.R.); (R.A.)
| | - Joydeep Dutta
- Functional Materials Group, Applied Physics Department, School of Engineering Sciences, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Hannes Alfvéns väg 12, 11419 Stockholm, Sweden;
| | - Ion Tiginyanu
- National Center for Materials Study and Testing, Technical University of Moldova, Stefan cel Mare Av. 168, MD-2004 Chisinau, Moldova; (V.C.); (T.B.); (V.U.)
- Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Stefan cel Mare Av. 1, MD-2001 Chisinau, Moldova
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8
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Kisslinger R, Riddell S, Manuel AP, Alam KM, Kalra AP, Cui K, Shankar K. Nonlithographic Formation of Ta 2O 5 Nanodimple Arrays Using Electrochemical Anodization and Their Use in Plasmonic Photocatalysis for Enhancement of Local Field and Catalytic Activity. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:4340-4351. [PMID: 33455157 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c18580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate the formation of Ta2O5 nanodimple arrays on technologically relevant non-native substrates through a simple anodization and annealing process. The anodizing voltage determines the pore diameter (25-60 nm), pore depth (2-9 nm), and rate of anodization (1-2 nm/s of Ta consumed). The formation of Ta dimples after delamination of Ta2O5 nanotubes occurs within a range of voltages from 7 to 40 V. The conversion of dimples from Ta into Ta2O5 changes the morphology of the nanodimples but does not impact dimple ordering. Electron energy loss spectroscopy indicated an electronic band gap of 4.5 eV and a bulk plasmon band with a maximum of 21.5 eV. Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) were coated on Ta2O5 nanodimple arrays by annealing sputtered Au thin films on Ta nanodimple arrays to simultaneously form Au NPs and convert Ta to Ta2O5. Au NPs produced this way showed a localized surface plasmon resonance maximum at 2.08 eV, red-shifted by ∼0.3 eV from the value in air or on SiO2 substrates. Lumerical simulations suggest a partial embedding of the Au NPs to explain this magnitude of the red shift. The resulting plasmonic heterojunctions exhibited a significantly higher ensemble-averaged local field enhancement than Au NPs on quartz substrates and demonstrated much higher catalytic activity for the plasmon-driven photo-oxidation of p-aminothiophenol to p,p'-dimercaptoazobenzene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Kisslinger
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Saralyn Riddell
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Ajay P Manuel
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Kazi M Alam
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Aarat P Kalra
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, 9211-116 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Kai Cui
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Karthik Shankar
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
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9
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Ito R, Akatsuka M, Ozawa A, Yamamoto M, Tanabe T, Yoshida T. Photocatalytic Activity of Metal Oxide Supported Gallium Oxide for CO 2 Reduction with Water. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2020. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20190366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Ito
- Applied Chemistry and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Masato Akatsuka
- Applied Chemistry and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Akiyo Ozawa
- Applied Chemistry and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
- Corporate Research Laboratories, Research & Development Division, Sakai Chemical Industry, Co., Ltd., 5-2 Ebisujima-cho, Sakai-ku, Sakai, Osaka 590-0815, Japan
| | - Muneaki Yamamoto
- Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Tanabe
- Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Tomoko Yoshida
- Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
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10
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Utilization of La<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> as a Support of Ga<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> Photocatalyst to Enhance Activity on CO<sub>2</sub> Reduction with Water. E-JOURNAL OF SURFACE SCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2020.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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11
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Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Li X, Dai J, Song F, Cao X, Lyu X, Crittenden JC. Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity of SiC-Based Ternary Graphene Materials: A DFT Study and the Photocatalytic Mechanism. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:20142-20151. [PMID: 31815214 PMCID: PMC6893965 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b01832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A graphene-like semiconductor composite is one of the most promising photocatalyst that does not use noble metals. These composites have excellent photocatalytic properties and have attracted great attention for water splitting. Here, a facile method called the hydrothermal method was used to prepare graphene oxide (GO)/SiC/MoS2 composites. Under visible-light irradiation, the GO/SiC/MoS2 composite had excellent photocatalytic production of hydrogen from water splitting. In particular, the catalyst added 8 wt % of Mo weight yielded the highest quantum of 20.45% at 400-700 nm of wavelength. A positive synergistic effect between the layered GO and MoS2 components contributed to the enhanced photoactivity of the SiC particles. The synergistic effect reduced the recombination of photogenerated holes and electrons, enhanced the rate of electron transfer, and provided more reaction active sites for water splitting. The interactions among SiC, GO, and MoS2 were investigated using a density functional theory. The calculations showed that the relative positions between graphene only slightly affect the stability of the interface, and the MoS2 layers have a great influence. The photocatalytic mechanism was also discussed, and electron transfer was predicted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyan Zhang
- School
of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- School
of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Xue Li
- School
of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Jianhong Dai
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin
Institute of Technology at Weihai, 2 West Wenhua Road, Weihai 264209, China
| | - Fengjuan Song
- School
of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Cao
- School
of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Xianjun Lyu
- School
of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - John C. Crittenden
- School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute and Technology, 828 W. Peachtree Street, Suite 320, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0595, United States
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