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Swager TM, Pioch TN, Feng H, Bergman HM, Luo SXL, Valenza JJ. Critical Sensing Modalities for Hydrogen: Technical Needs and Status of the Field to Support a Changing Energy Landscape. ACS Sens 2024; 9:2205-2227. [PMID: 38738834 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.4c00251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Decarbonization of the energy system is a key aspect of the energy transition. Energy storage in the form of chemical bonds has long been viewed as an optimal scheme for energy conversion. With advances in systems engineering, hydrogen has the potential to become a low cost, low emission, energy carrier. However, hydrogen is difficult to contain, it exhibits a low flammability limit (>40000 ppm or 4%), low ignition energy (0.02 mJ), and it is a short-lived climate forcer. Beyond commercially available sensors to ensure safety through spot checks in enclosed environments, new sensors are necessary to support the development of low emission infrastructure for production, transmission, storage, and end use. Efficient scalable broad area hydrogen monitoring motivates lowering the detection limit below that (10 ppm) of best in class commercial technologies. In this perspective, we evaluate recent advances in hydrogen gas sensing to highlight technologies that may find broad utility in the hydrogen sector. It is clear in the near term that a sensor technology suite is required to meet the variable constraints (e.g., power, size/weight, connectivity, cost) that characterize the breadth of the application space, ranging from industrial complexes to remote pipelines. This perspective is not intended to be another standard hydrogen sensor review, but rather provide a critical evaluation of technologies with detection limits preferably below 1 ppm and low power requirements. Given projections for rapid market growth, promising techniques will also be amenable to rapid development in technical readiness for commercial deployment. As such, methods that do not meet these requirements will not be considered in depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Swager
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chemistry Department, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 United States
| | - Thomas N Pioch
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chemistry Department, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 United States
| | - Haosheng Feng
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chemistry Department, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 United States
| | - Harrison M Bergman
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chemistry Department, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 United States
| | - Shao-Xiong Lennon Luo
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chemistry Department, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 United States
| | - John J Valenza
- Research Division, ExxonMobil Technology and Engineering Company, Annandale, New Jersey 08801 United States
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Muthusamy L, Uppalapati B, Azad S, Bava M, Koley G. Self-Polarized P(VDF-TrFE)/Carbon Black Composite Piezoelectric Thin Film. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4131. [PMID: 37896374 PMCID: PMC10610547 DOI: 10.3390/polym15204131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-polarized energy harvesting materials have seen increasing research interest in recent years owing to their simple fabrication method and versatile application potential. In this study, we systematically investigated self-polarized P(VDF-TrFE)/carbon black (CB) composite thin films synthesized on flexible substrates, with the CB content varying from 0 to 0.6 wt.% in P(VDF-TrFE). The presence of -OH functional groups on carbon black significantly enhances its crystallinity, dipolar orientation, and piezoelectric performance. Multiple characterization techniques were used to investigate the crystalline quality, chemical structure, and morphology of the composite P(VDF-TrFE)/CB films, which indicated no significant changes in these parameters. However, some increase in surface roughness was observed when the CB content increased. With the application of an external force, the piezoelectrically generated voltage was found to systematically increase with higher CB content, reaching a maximum value at 0.6 wt.%, after which the sample exhibited low resistance. The piezoelectric voltage produced by the unpoled 0.6 wt.% CB composite film significantly exceeded the unpoled pure P(VDF-TrFE) film when subjected to the same applied strain. Furthermore, it exhibited exceptional stability in the piezoelectric voltage over time, exceeding the output voltage of the poled pure P(VDF-TrFE) film. Notably, P(VDF_TrFE)/CB composite-based devices can be used in energy harvesting and piezoelectric strain sensing to monitor human motions, which has the potential to positively impact the field of smart wearable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lavanya Muthusamy
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (B.U.); (S.A.); (G.K.)
| | - Balaadithya Uppalapati
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (B.U.); (S.A.); (G.K.)
| | - Samee Azad
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (B.U.); (S.A.); (G.K.)
| | - Manav Bava
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA;
| | - Goutam Koley
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (B.U.); (S.A.); (G.K.)
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Uppalapati B, Gajula D, Bava M, Muthusamy L, Koley G. Low-Power AlGaN/GaN Triangular Microcantilever for Air Flow Detection. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7465. [PMID: 37687921 PMCID: PMC10490568 DOI: 10.3390/s23177465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates an AlGaN/GaN triangular microcantilever with a heated apex for airflow detection utilizing a very simple two-terminal sensor configuration. Thermal microscope images were used to verify that the apex region of the microcantilever reached significantly higher temperatures than other parts under applied voltage bias. The sensor response was found to vary linearly with airflow rate when tested over a range of airflow varying from 16 to 2000 sccm. The noise-limited flow volume measurement yielded ~4 sccm resolution, while the velocity resolution was found to be 0.241 cm/s, which is one of the best reported so far for thermal sensors. The sensor was able to operate at a very low power consumption level of ~5 mW, which is one of the lowest reported for these types of sensors. The intrinsic response time of the sensor was estimated to be on the order of a few ms, limited by its thermal properties. Overall, the microcantilever sensor, with its simple geometry and measurement configurations, was found to exhibit attractive performance metrics useful for various sensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balaadithya Uppalapati
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Durga Gajula
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Manav Bava
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Lavanya Muthusamy
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Goutam Koley
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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Zhang X, Li X, Zhang X, Peng W. Optics-mechanics synergistic fiber optic sensor for hydrogen detection. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:32769-32782. [PMID: 36242332 DOI: 10.1364/oe.468282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
As a carbon-free energy carrier and an attractive alternative energy source, hydrogen energy has great development potential for future considerations, and it may be the ultimate answer to the global energy crisis. Due to the high combustibility of hydrogen, hydrogen sensors will be a vital component of safe use of hydrogen. Among the various sensors, the optical hydrogen sensor can meet the requirements of intrinsic safety, online detection, surrounding immunity, and lack of spark. Hence, we demonstrate a miniature optics-mechanics synergistic fiber optic hydrogen sensor by using Pd nanofilm, it has a large response range (0.5%-3.5%), high sensitivity of -0.334 nm/1% concentration and a short response time (10s)/recovery time (25s). Experimental results reveal that the proposed optics-mechanics synergistic fiber optic hydrogen sensor is reusable, durable, and low temperature sensitive. In this optics-mechanics synergistic fiber optic hydrogen sensor, nano Pd film with a large surface-to-volume ratio allows for rapid hydrogen dissociation, and Pd lattice expansion caused by Pd-hydrogen reaction is effectively transduced into optical change. This proposed sensor integrated Pd nanofilm with optical fiber by using an optics-mechanics synergistic strategy, resulting in a compact and all-optical solution for the safe measurement of hydrogen concentration, which can be used in hazardous or space-limited environments.
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Bayram F, Gajula D, Khan D, Koley G. Mechanical memory operations in piezotransistive GaN microcantilevers using Au nanoparticle-enhanced photoacoustic excitation. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2022; 8:8. [PMID: 35127131 PMCID: PMC8784537 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-021-00330-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nonlinear oscillations in micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems have emerged as an exciting research area in recent years due to their promise in realizing low-power, scalable, and reconfigurable mechanical memory and logic devices. Here, we report ultralow-power mechanical memory operations utilizing the nonlinear oscillation regime of GaN microcantilevers with embedded piezotransistive AlGaN/GaN heterostructure field effect transistors as highly sensitive deflection transducers. Switching between the high and low oscillatory states of the nonlinear oscillation regime was demonstrated using a novel phase-controlled opto-mechanical excitation setup, utilizing a piezo actuator and a pulsed laser as the primary and secondary excitation sources, respectively. Laser-based photoacoustic excitation was amplified through plasmonic absorption in Au nanoparticles deposited on a transistor. Thus, the minimum switching energy required for reliable memory operations was reduced to less than a picojoule (pJ), which translates to one of the lowest ever reported, when normalized for mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferhat Bayram
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Durga Gajula
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332 USA
| | - Digangana Khan
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Goutam Koley
- Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
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Luo J, Liu S, Chen P, Lu S, Zhang Q, Chen Y, Du B, Tang J, He J, Liao C, Wang Y. Fiber optic hydrogen sensor based on a Fabry-Perot interferometer with a fiber Bragg grating and a nanofilm. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:1752-1758. [PMID: 33949551 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00012h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen is widely used in industrial production and clinical medicine, and as fuel. Hydrogen becomes explosive when the hydrogen-air mixture ranges from 4 to 76 vol%; thus, a rapid hydrogen concentration measurement is particularly important in practical applications. We present a novel fiber optic hydrogen sensor with fast response fabricated from a graphene-Au-Pd sandwich nanofilm and an ultrashort fiber Bragg grating. The response time is only 4.3 s at a 3.5 vol% hydrogen concentration. When the measured hydrogen concentration was increased from 0 to 4.5 vol%, the optical resonance dip in the sensor near 1550 nm shifted by 290 pm. In addition, the sensor has an insertion loss of only -2.22 dB, a spectral contrast of 10.8 dB, and a spectral finesse of 5. Such a flexible, fast-response sensor is expected to be used in the development of hydrogen sensors with low power consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxian Luo
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Shen Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Peijing Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Shengzhen Lu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Yanping Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Bin Du
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Jian Tang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Jun He
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Changrui Liao
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Yiping Wang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China. and Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
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