Progesterone-targeted magnetic resonance imaging probes

Water-Soluble Nanoconjugate for Enhanced Cellular Delivery of Receptor-Targeted Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agents

ProGlo is an efficient steroid receptor-targeted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging contrast agent (CA). It has been shown to bind to the progesterone receptor (PR) and produce enhanced image contrast in PR-positive cells and tissues in vitro and in vivo. However, the hydrophobicity of the steroid targeting domain of ProGlo (logP = 1.4) limits its formulation and delivery at clinically relevant doses. In this work, a hydrophobic moiety was utilized to drive efficient adsorption onto nanodiamond (ND) clusters to form a water-soluble nanoconstruct (logP = -2.4) with 80% release in 8 h under biological conditions. In cell culture, the ND-ProGlo construct delivered increased concentrations of ProGlo to target cells compared to ProGlo alone. Importantly, these results were accomplished without the use of solvents such as DMSO, providing a significant advance toward formulating ProGlo for translational applications. Biodistribution studies confirm the delivery of ProGlo to PR(+) tissues with enhanced efficacy over untargeted controls. These results demonstrate the potential for a noncovalent ND-CA construct as a general strategy for solubilizing and delivering hydrophobic targeted MR CAs.

Lanthanide-based tools for the investigation of cellular environments

Biological probes constructed from lanthanides can provide a variety of readout signals, such as the luminescence of Eu(iii), Tb(iii), Yb(iii), Sm(iii) and Dy(iii), and the proton relaxation enhancement of Gd(iii) and Eu(ii). For numerous applications the intracellular delivery of the lanthanide probe is essential. Here, we review the methods for the intracellular delivery of non-targeted complexes (i.e. where the overall complex structure enhances cellular uptake), as well as complexes attached to a targeting unit (i.e. to a peptide or a small molecule) that facilitates delivery. The cellular applications of lanthanide-based supramolecules (dendrimers, metal organic frameworks) are covered briefly. Throughout, we emphasize the techniques that can confirm the intracellular localization of the lanthanides and those that enable the determination of the fate of the probes once inside the cell. Finally, we highlight methods that have not yet been applied in the context of lanthanide-based probes, but have been successful in the intracellular delivery of other metal-based probes.

Estrogen Receptor-Targeted Contrast Agents for Molecular Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Breast Cancer Hormonal Status

The estrogen receptor (ER) α is overexpressed in most breast cancers, and its level serves as a major prognostic factor. It is important to develop quantitative molecular imaging methods that specifically detect ER in vivo and assess its function throughout the entire primary breast cancer and in metastatic breast cancer lesions. This study presents the biochemical and molecular features, as well as the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) effects of two novel ER-targeted contrast agents (CAs), based on pyridine-tetra-acetate-Gd(III) chelate conjugated to 17β-estradiol (EPTA-Gd) or to tamoxifen (TPTA-Gd). The experiments were conducted in solution, in human breast cancer cells, and in severe combined immunodeficient mice implanted with transfected ER-positive and ER-negative MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer xenografts. Binding studies with ER in solution and in human breast cancer cells indicated affinities in the micromolar range of both CAs. Biochemical and molecular studies in breast cancer cell cultures showed that both CAs exhibit estrogen-like agonistic activity, enhancing cell proliferation, as well as upregulating cMyc oncogene and downregulating ER expression levels. The MRI longitudinal relaxivity was significantly augmented by EPTA-Gd in ER-positive cells as compared to ER-negative cells. Dynamic contrast-enhanced studies with EPTA-Gd in vivo indicated specific augmentation of the MRI water signal in the ER-positive versus ER-negative xenografts, confirming EPTA-Gd-specific interaction with ER. In contrast, TPTA-Gd did not show increased enhancement in ER-positive tumors and did not appear to interact in vivo with the tumors’ ER. However, TPTA-Gd was found to interact strongly with muscle tissue, enhancing muscle signal intensity in a mechanism independent of the presence of ER. The specificity of EPTA-Gd interaction with ER in vivo was further verified by acute and chronic competition with tamoxifen. The chronic tamoxifen treatment also revealed that this drug increases the microvascular permeability of breast cancer xenograft in an ER-independent manner. In conclusion, EPTA-Gd has been shown to serve as an efficient molecular imaging probe for specific assessment of breast cancer ER in vivo.

Genome-wide transcriptional regulation of estrogen receptor targets in fallopian tube cells and the role of selective estrogen receptor modulators

Background

The fallopian tube epithelium is one of the potential sources of high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSC). The use of estrogen only hormone replacement therapy increases ovarian cancer (OVCA) risk. Despite estrogen’s influence in OVCA, selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) typically demonstrate only a 20 % response rate. This low response could be due to a variety of factors including the loss of estrogen receptor signaling or the role of estrogen in different potential cell types of origin. The response of fallopian tube epithelium to SERMs is not known, and would be useful when determining therapeutic options for tumors arising from this cell type, such as HGSC.

Results

Using normal murine derived oviductal epithelial cells (mouse equivalent to the fallopian tube) estrogen receptor expression was confirmed and interaction with its ligand, estradiol, triggered mRNA and protein induction of progesterone receptor (PR). The SERMs 4-hydroxytamoxifen, raloxifene and desmethylarzoxifene, functioned as estrogen receptor antagonists in oviductal cells. Cellular proliferation and migration assays suggested that estradiol does not significantly impact cellular migration and increased proliferation. Further, using RNAseq, the oviduct specific transcriptional genes targets of ER when stimulated by estradiol and 4-hydroxytamoxifen signaling were determined and validated. The RNA-seq revealed enrichment in proliferation, anti-apoptosis, calcium signaling and steroid signaling processes. Finally, the ER and PR receptor status of a panel of HGSC cell lines was investigated including Kuramochi, OVSAHO, OVKATE, OVCAR3, and OVCAR4. OVSAHO demonstrated receptor expression and response, which highlights the need for additional models of ovarian cancer that are estrogen responsive.

Conclusions

Overall, the fallopian tube has specific gene targets of estrogen receptor and demonstrates a tissue specific response to SERMs consistent with antagonistic action.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13048-016-0213-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.