1
|
Sun HH, Wang ZZ, Gao YY, Hao GF, Yang GF. Protein Kinases as Potential Targets Contribute to the Development of Agrochemicals. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:52-64. [PMID: 36592042 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c06222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Using agrochemicals against pest insects, fungi, and weeds plays a major part in maintaining and improving crop yields, which helps to solve the issue of food security. Due to the limited targets and resistance of agrochemicals, protein kinases are regarded as attractive potential targets to develop new agrochemicals. Recently, a lot of investigations have shown the extension of agrochemicals by targeting protein kinases, implying an increasing concern for this kind of method. However, few people have summarized and discussed the targetability of protein kinases contributing to the development of agrochemicals. In this work, we introduce the research on protein kinases as potential targets used in crop protection and discuss the prospects of protein kinases in the field of agrochemical development. This study may not only provide guidance for the contribution of protein kinases to the development of agrochemicals but also help nonprofessionals such as students learn and understand the role of protein kinases quickly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Han Sun
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhi-Zheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang-Yang Gao
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Research and Development Center for Fine Chemicals, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, People's Republic of China
| | - Ge-Fei Hao
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, People's Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Research and Development Center for Fine Chemicals, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, People's Republic of China
| | - Guang-Fu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Araujo NA, Rincón M, Vonasek E, Calabokis M, Bubis J. Biochemical characterization of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase regulatory subunit-like protein from Trypanosoma equiperdum, detection of its inhibitory activity, and identification of potential interacting proteins. Biochimie 2020; 168:110-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2019.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
3
|
Ma C, Lv X, Wang K, Jin S, Liu H, Wu K, Zeng W. Simple fluorescence-based detection of protein kinase A activity using a molecular beacon probe. Bioengineered 2017; 8:716-722. [PMID: 28594266 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2017.1338219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein kinase A was detected by quantifying the amount of ATP used after a protein kinase reaction. The ATP assay was performed using the T4 DNA ligase and a molecular beacon (MB). In the presence of ATP, DNA ligase catalyzed the ligation of short DNA. The ligation product then hybridized to MB, resulting in a fluorescence enhancement of the MB. This assay was capable of determining protein kinase A in the range of 12.5∼150 nM, with a detection limit of 1.25 nM. Furthermore, this assay could also be used to investigate the effect of genistein on protein kinase A. It was a universal, non-radioisotopic, and homogeneous method for assaying protein kinase A.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Changbei Ma
- a State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics & School of Life Sciences , Central South University , Changsha , China.,b State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics , Hunan University , Changsha , China
| | - Xiaoyuan Lv
- b State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics , Hunan University , Changsha , China
| | - Kemin Wang
- b State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics , Hunan University , Changsha , China
| | - Shunxin Jin
- a State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics & School of Life Sciences , Central South University , Changsha , China
| | - Haisheng Liu
- a State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics & School of Life Sciences , Central South University , Changsha , China
| | - Kefeng Wu
- a State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics & School of Life Sciences , Central South University , Changsha , China
| | - Weimin Zeng
- a State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics & School of Life Sciences , Central South University , Changsha , China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Batra P, Sharma AK. Anti-cancer potential of flavonoids: recent trends and future perspectives. 3 Biotech 2013; 3:439-459. [PMID: 28324424 PMCID: PMC3824783 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-013-0117-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a major public health concern in both developed and developing countries. Several plant-derived anti-cancer agents including taxol, vinblastine, vincristine, the campothecin derivatives, topotecan, irinotecan and etoposide are in clinical use all over the world. Other promising anti-cancer agents include flavopiridol, roscovitine, combretastatin A-4, betulinic acid and silvestrol. From this list one can well imagine the predominance of polyphenols, flavonoids and their synthetic analogs in the treatment of ovarian, breast, cervical, pancreatic and prostate cancer. Flavonoids present in human diet comprise many polyphenolic secondary metabolites with broad-spectrum pharmacological activities including their potential role as anti-cancer agents. A positive correlation between flavonoids-rich diet (from vegetables and fruits) and lower risk of colon, prostate and breast cancers lead to a question that whether flavonoids mediate the protective effects as chemopreventive agents or can interact with different genes and proteins to play role in chemotherapy. The current review emphasizes onto the therapeutic potential of flavonoids and their synthetic analogs as anti-cancer agents by providing new insights into the factors, regulation and molecular mechanisms along with their significant protein interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Priya Batra
- Department of Biotechnology, MMEC, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, 133207, India
| | - Anil K Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, MMEC, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, 133207, India.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lamberti G, Gügel IL, Meurer J, Soll J, Schwenkert S. The cytosolic kinases STY8, STY17, and STY46 are involved in chloroplast differentiation in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 157:70-85. [PMID: 21799034 PMCID: PMC3165899 DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.182774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), transit peptides for chloroplast-destined preproteins can be phosphorylated by the protein kinases STY8, STY17, and STY46. In this study, we have investigated the in vitro properties of these plant-specific kinases. Characterization of the mechanistic functioning of STY8 led to the identification of an essential threonine in the activation segment, which is phosphorylated by an intramolecular mechanism. STY8 is inhibited by specific tyrosine kinase inhibitors, although it lacked the ability to phosphorylate tyrosine residues in vitro. In vivo analysis of sty8, sty17, and sty46 Arabidopsis knockout/knockdown mutants revealed a distinct function of the three kinases in the greening process and in the efficient differentiation of chloroplasts. Mutant plants displayed not only a delayed accumulation of chlorophyll but also a reduction of nucleus-encoded chloroplast proteins and a retarded establishment of photosynthetic capacity during the first 6 h of deetiolation, supporting a role of cytosolic STY kinases in chloroplast differentiation.
Collapse
|
6
|
Ghelis T. Signal processing by protein tyrosine phosphorylation in plants. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:942-51. [PMID: 21628997 PMCID: PMC3257767 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.7.15261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation is a reversible post-translational modification controlling many biological processes. Most phosphorylation occurs on serine and threonine, and to a less extend on tyrosine (Tyr). In animals, Tyr phosphorylation is crucial for the regulation of many responses such as growth or differentiation. Only recently with the development of mass spectrometry, it has been reported that Tyr phosphorylation is as important in plants as in animals. The genes encoding protein Tyr kinases and protein Tyr phosphatases have been identified in the Arabidopsis thaliana genome. Putative substrates of these enzymes, and thus Tyr-phosphorylated proteins have been reported by proteomic studies based on accurate mass spectrometry analysis of the phosphopeptides and phosphoproteins. Biochemical approaches, pharmacology and genetic manipulations have indicated that responses to stress and developmental processes involve changes in protein Tyr phosphorylation. The aim of this review is to present an update on Tyr phosphorylation in plants in order to better assess the role of this post-translational modification in plant physiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thanos Ghelis
- UPMC Université Paris 06, Sorbonne Universités, UR5 EAC 7180 CNRS, Physiologie Cellulaire et Moléculaire des Plantes, Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ritsema T, Brodmann D, Diks SH, Bos CL, Nagaraj V, Pieterse CM, Boller T, Wiemken A, Peppelenbosch MP. Are small GTPases signal hubs in sugar-mediated induction of fructan biosynthesis? PLoS One 2009; 4:e6605. [PMID: 19672308 PMCID: PMC2720452 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2009] [Accepted: 06/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
External sugar initiates biosynthesis of the reserve carbohydrate fructan, but the molecular processes mediating this response remain obscure. Previously it was shown that a phosphatase and a general kinase inhibitor hamper fructan accumulation. We use various phosphorylation inhibitors both in barley and in Arabidopsis and show that the expression of fructan biosynthetic genes is dependent on PP2A and different kinases such as Tyr-kinases and PI3-kinases. To further characterize the phosphorylation events involved, comprehensive analysis of kinase activities in the cell was performed using a PepChip, an array of >1000 kinase consensus substrate peptide substrates spotted on a chip. Comparison of kinase activities in sugar-stimulated and mock(sorbitol)-treated Arabidopsis demonstrates the altered phosphorylation of many consensus substrates and documents the differences in plant kinase activity upon sucrose feeding. The different phosphorylation profiles obtained are consistent with sugar-mediated alterations in Tyr phosphorylation, cell cycling, and phosphoinositide signaling, and indicate cytoskeletal rearrangements. The results lead us to infer a central role for small GTPases in sugar signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tita Ritsema
- Botanisches Institut der Universität Basel, Zurich Basel Plant Science Center, Basel, Switzerland
- Plant-Microbe interactions, Institute of Environmental Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - David Brodmann
- Botanisches Institut der Universität Basel, Zurich Basel Plant Science Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sander H. Diks
- Department of Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Carina L. Bos
- Department of Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Vinay Nagaraj
- Botanisches Institut der Universität Basel, Zurich Basel Plant Science Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Corné M.J. Pieterse
- Plant-Microbe interactions, Institute of Environmental Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Boller
- Botanisches Institut der Universität Basel, Zurich Basel Plant Science Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andres Wiemken
- Botanisches Institut der Universität Basel, Zurich Basel Plant Science Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maikel P. Peppelenbosch
- Department of Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Diks SH, Parikh K, van der Sijde M, Joore J, Ritsema T, Peppelenbosch MP. Evidence for a minimal eukaryotic phosphoproteome? PLoS One 2007; 2:e777. [PMID: 17712425 PMCID: PMC1945084 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Accepted: 07/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reversible phosphorylation catalysed by kinases is probably the most important regulatory mechanism in eukaryotes. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We studied the in vitro phosphorylation of peptide arrays exhibiting the majority of PhosphoBase-deposited protein sequences, by factors in cell lysates from representatives of various branches of the eukaryotic species. We derived a set of substrates from the PhosphoBase whose phosphorylation by cellular extracts is common to the divergent members of different kingdoms and thus may be considered a minimal eukaryotic phosphoproteome. The protein kinases (or kinome) responsible for phosphorylation of these substrates are involved in a variety of processes such as transcription, translation, and cytoskeletal reorganisation. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These results indicate that the divergence in eukaryotic kinases is not reflected at the level of substrate phosphorylation, revealing the presence of a limited common substrate space for kinases in eukaryotes and suggests the presence of a set of kinase substrates and regulatory mechanisms in an ancestral eukaryote that has since remained constant in eukaryotic life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sander H Diks
- Kinome Profiling Unit, Department of Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Reddy MM, Rajasekharan R. Serine/threonine/tyrosine protein kinase from Arabidopsis thaliana is dependent on serine residues for its activity. Arch Biochem Biophys 2007; 460:122-8. [PMID: 17291444 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2007.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2006] [Revised: 01/02/2007] [Accepted: 01/02/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana with tyrosine kinase motif from animals predicted that tyrosine phosphorylation could be brought about only by dual-specificity protein kinases in plants. However, their regulation is poorly understood. In the present study, we have investigated the role of serines required for the activity of Arabidopsis thaliana serine/threonine/tyrosine protein kinase (AtSTYPK). There are eight serines in the kinase catalytic domain. The role of each serine residue was studied individually by substituting them with alanine. Serines at positions 215, 259, 269 and 315 are required for the kinase activity both in terms of auto and substrate phosphorylations of myelin basic protein. The mutant S265A showed slight increase in auto and substrate phosphorylations. Other serines at positions 165, 181 and 360 did not show any change in the phosphorylation status as compared to wild-type. In conclusion, these results suggest the importance of serine residues required for dual-specificity protein kinase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mamatha M Reddy
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Vyetrogon K, Tebbji F, Olson DJH, Ross ARS, Matton DP. A comparative proteome and phosphoproteome analysis of differentially regulated proteins during fertilization in the self-incompatible speciesSolanum chacoense Bitt. Proteomics 2007; 7:232-47. [PMID: 17205606 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200600399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
We have used 2-DE for a time-course study of the changes in protein and phosphoprotein expression that occur immediately after fertilization in Solanum chacoense. The phosphorylation status of the detected proteins was determined with three methods: in vivo labeling, immunodetection, and phosphoprotein-specific staining. Using a pI range of 4-7, 262 phosphorylated proteins could be mapped to the 619 proteins detected by Sypro Ruby staining, representing 42% of the total proteins. Among these phosphoproteins, antibodies detected 184 proteins from which 78 were also detected with either of the other two methods (42%). Pro-Q Diamond phosphoprotein stain detected 111 proteins, of which 76 were also detected with either of the other two methods (68%). The 32P in vivo labeling method detected 90 spots from which 78 were also detected with either of other two methods (87%). On comparing before and after fertilization profiles, 38 proteins and phosphoproteins presented a reproducible change in their accumulation profiles. Among these, 24 spots were selected and analyzed by LC-MS/MS using a hybrid quadrupole-TOF (Q-TOF) instrument. Peptide data were searched against publicly available protein and EST databases, and the putative roles of the identified proteins in early fertilization events are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kateryna Vyetrogon
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale (IRBV), Département de sciences biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Reddy MM, Rajasekharan R. Role of threonine residues in the regulation of manganese-dependent arabidopsis serine/threonine/tyrosine protein kinase activity. Arch Biochem Biophys 2006; 455:99-109. [PMID: 17054899 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2006.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2006] [Revised: 09/13/2006] [Accepted: 09/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Tyrosine phosphorylation in plants could be performed only by dual-specificity kinases. Arabidopsis thaliana dual-specificity protein kinase (AtSTYPK) exhibited strong preference for manganese over magnesium for its kinase activity. The kinase autophosphorylated on serine, threonine and tyrosine residues and phosphorylated myelin basic protein on threonine and tyrosine residues. The AtSTYPK harbors manganese dependent serine/threonine kinase domain, COG3642. His248 and Ser265 on COG3642 are conserved in AtSTYPK and the site-directed mutant, H248A showed loss of serine/threonine kinase activity. The protein kinase activity was abolished when Thr208 in the TEY motif and Thr293 of the activation loop were converted to alanine. The conversion of Thr284 in the activation loop to alanine resulted in an increased phosphorylation. This study reports the first identification of a manganese dependent dual-specificity kinase and the importance of Thr208, Thr284, and Thr293 residues in the regulation of kinase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mamatha M Reddy
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Rudrabhatla P, Reddy MM, Rajasekharan R. Genome-wide analysis and experimentation of plant serine/ threonine/tyrosine-specific protein kinases. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 60:293-319. [PMID: 16429265 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-005-4109-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2005] [Accepted: 10/17/2005] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphorylation plays an important role in cell growth, development and oncogenesis. No classical protein tyrosine kinase has hitherto been cloned from plants. Does protein tyrosine kinase exist in plants? To address this, we have performed a genomic survey of protein tyrosine kinase motifs in plants using the delineated tyrosine phosphorylation motifs from the animal system. The Arabidopsis thaliana genome encodes 57 different protein kinases that have tyrosine kinase motifs. Animal non-receptor tyrosine kinases, SRC, ABL, LYN, FES, SEK, KIN and RAS have structural relationship with putative plant tyrosine kinases. In an extended analysis, animal receptor and non-receptor kinases, Raf and Ras kinases, mixed lineage kinases and plant serine/threonine/tyrosine (STY) protein kinases, form a well-supported group sharing a common origin within the superfamily of STY kinases. We report that plants lack bona fide tyrosine kinases, which raise an intriguing possibility that tyrosine phosphorylation is carried out by dual-specificity STY protein kinases in plants. The distribution pattern of STY protein kinase families on Arabidopsis chromosomes indicates that this gene family is partly a consequence of duplication and reshuffling of the Arabidopsis genome and of the generation of tandem repeats. Genome-wide analysis is supported by the functional expression and characterization of At2g24360 and phosphoproteomics of Arabidopsis. Evidence for tyrosine phosphorylated proteins is provided by alkaline hydrolysis, anti-phosphotyrosine immunoblotting, phosphoamino acid analysis and peptide mass fingerprinting. These results report the first comprehensive survey of genome-wide and tyrosine phosphoproteome analysis of plant STY protein kinases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Parvathi Rudrabhatla
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, 560012 Bangalore, India
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Chitcholtan K, Garrill A. A beta4 integrin-like protein co-localises with a phosphotyrosine containing protein in the oomycete Achlya bisexualis: inhibition of tyrosine phosphorylation slows tip growth. Fungal Genet Biol 2005; 42:534-45. [PMID: 15893255 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2005.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2005] [Revised: 03/10/2005] [Accepted: 03/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We present immunocytochemical data that indicate the presence of, and a close association between beta4 integrin-like proteins and proteins containing phosphorylated tyrosine residues in the oomycete Achlya bisexualis. When hyphae were plasmolysed, these proteins were present in wall-membrane attachment sites where there was also F-actin. A combination of immunoblots, ELISA, and a coupled enzyme assay suggest that phosphorylation may occur by both autophosphorylation and through the action of a tyrosine kinase. Tyrphostins, which are inhibitors of tyrosine kinases, abolished the anti-phosphotyrosine staining, inhibited the kinase activity, slowed tip growth and affected the organisation of the actin cytoskeleton, in a dose-dependent manner. By analogy with the integrins and associated kinases of the metazoa we suggest that these proteins could contribute to the process of tip growth by providing a means of bidirectional signaling between the cell wall and the cytoplasm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenny Chitcholtan
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8020, New Zealand
| | | |
Collapse
|