Cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and thiol modification of the Rickettsia prowazekii ATP/ADP translocase: evidence that transmembrane regions I and II, but not III, are structural components of the aqueous translocation channel

Synthetic Biology: Bottom-Up Assembly of Molecular Systems

The bottom-up assembly of biological and chemical components opens exciting opportunities to engineer artificial vesicular systems for applications with previously unmet requirements. The modular combination of scaffolds and functional building blocks enables the engineering of complex systems with biomimetic or new-to-nature functionalities. Inspired by the compartmentalized organization of cells and organelles, lipid or polymer vesicles are widely used as model membrane systems to investigate the translocation of solutes and the transduction of signals by membrane proteins. The bottom-up assembly and functionalization of such artificial compartments enables full control over their composition and can thus provide specifically optimized environments for synthetic biological processes. This review aims to inspire future endeavors by providing a diverse toolbox of molecular modules, engineering methodologies, and different approaches to assemble artificial vesicular systems. Important technical and practical aspects are addressed and selected applications are presented, highlighting particular achievements and limitations of the bottom-up approach. Complementing the cutting-edge technological achievements, fundamental aspects are also discussed to cater to the inherently diverse background of the target audience, which results from the interdisciplinary nature of synthetic biology. The engineering of proteins as functional modules and the use of lipids and block copolymers as scaffold modules for the assembly of functionalized vesicular systems are explored in detail. Particular emphasis is placed on ensuring the controlled assembly of these components into increasingly complex vesicular systems. Finally, all descriptions are presented in the greater context of engineering valuable synthetic biological systems for applications in biocatalysis, biosensing, bioremediation, or targeted drug delivery.

Nucleotide parasitism by Simkania negevensis (Chlamydiae)

Intracellular bacteria live in an environment rich in most essential metabolites but need special mechanisms to access these substrates. Nucleotide transport proteins (NTTs) catalyze the import of ATP and other nucleotides from the eukaryotic host into the bacterial cell and render de novo synthesis of these compounds dispensable. The draft genome sequence of Simkania negevensis strain Z, a chlamydial organism considered a newly emerging pathogen, revealed four genes encoding putative nucleotide transport proteins (SnNTT1 to SnNTT4), all of which are transcribed during growth of S. negevensis in Acanthamoeba host cells, as confirmed by reverse transcription-PCR. Using heterologous expression in Escherichia coli, we could show that SnNTT1 functions as an ATP/ADP antiporter, SnNTT2 as a guanine nucleotide/ATP/H(+) symporter driven by the membrane potential, and SnNTT3 as a nucleotide triphosphate antiporter. In addition, SnNTT3 is able to transport dCTP, which has not been shown for a prokaryotic transport protein before. No substrate could be identified for SnNTT4. Taking these data together, S. negevensis employs a set of nucleotide transport proteins to efficiently tap its host's energy and nucleotide pools. Although similar to other chlamydiae, these transporters show distinct and unique adaptations with respect to substrate specificities and mode of transport.

Study of the five Rickettsia prowazekii proteins annotated as ATP/ADP translocases (Tlc): Only Tlc1 transports ATP/ADP, while Tlc4 and Tlc5 transport other ribonucleotides

The obligate intracytoplasmic pathogen Rickettsia prowazekii relies on the transport of many essential compounds from the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic host cell in lieu of de novo synthesis, an evolutionary outcome undoubtedly linked to obligatory growth in this metabolite-replete niche. The paradigm for the study of rickettsial transport systems is the ATP/ADP translocase Tlc1, which exchanges bacterial ADP for host cell ATP as a source of energy, rather than as a source of adenylate. Interestingly, the R. prowazekii genome encodes four open reading frames that are highly homologous to the well-characterized ATP/ADP translocase Tlc1. Therefore, by annotation, the R. prowazekii genome encodes a total of five ATP/ADP translocases: Tlc1, Tlc2, Tlc3, Tlc4, and Tlc5. We have confirmed by quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR that mRNAs corresponding to all five tlc homologues are expressed in R. prowazekii growing in L-929 cells and have shown their heterologous protein expression in Escherichia coli, suggesting that none of the tlc genes are pseudogenes in the process of evolutionary meltdown. However, we demonstrate by heterologous expression in E. coli that only Tlc1 functions as an ATP/ADP transporter. A survey of nucleotides and nucleosides has determined that Tlc4 transports CTP, UTP, and GDP. Intriguingly, although GTP was not transported by Tlc4, it was an inhibitor of CTP and UTP uptake and demonstrated a K(i) similar to that of GDP. In addition, we demonstrate that Tlc5 transports GTP and GDP. We postulate that Tlc4 and Tlc5 serve the primary function of maintaining intracellular pools of nucleotides for rickettsial nucleic acid biosynthesis and do not provide the cell with nucleoside triphosphates as an energy source, as is the case for Tlc1. Although heterologous expression of Tlc2 and Tlc3 was observed in E. coli, we were unable to identify substrates for these proteins.