1
|
Zhang X, Niu P, Liu H, Fang H. Production of pyrimidine nucleosides in microbial systems via metabolic engineering: Theoretical analysis research and prospects. Biotechnol Adv 2024; 75:108419. [PMID: 39053562 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2024.108419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Pyrimidine nucleosides, as intermediate materials of significant commercial value, find extensive applications in the pharmaceutical industry. However, the current production of pyrimidine nucleosides largely relies on chemical synthesis, creating environmental problems that do not align with sustainable development goals. Recent progress in systemic metabolic engineering and synthetic biology has enabled the synthesis of natural products like pyrimidine nucleosides through microbial fermentation, offering a more sustainable alternative. Nevertheless, the intricate and tightly regulated biosynthetic pathways involved in the microbial production of pyrimidine nucleosides pose a formidable challenge. This study focuses on metabolic engineering and synthetic biology strategies aimed at enhancing pyrimidine nucleoside production. These strategies include gene modification, transcriptional regulation, metabolic flux analysis, cofactor balance optimization, and transporter engineering. Finally, this research highlights the challenges involved in the further development of pyrimidine nucleoside-producing strains and offers potential solutions in order to provide theoretical guidance for future research endeavors in this field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangjun Zhang
- School of Life Science, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China
| | - Pilian Niu
- School of Life Science, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China
| | - Huiyan Liu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Ningxia Key Laboratory for Food Microbial-Applications Technology and Safety Control, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China.
| | - Haitian Fang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Ningxia Key Laboratory for Food Microbial-Applications Technology and Safety Control, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu D, Tian Z, Tusong K, Mamat H, Luo Y. Expression, purification and characterization of CTP synthase PyrG in Staphylococcusaureus. Protein Expr Purif 2024; 221:106520. [PMID: 38833752 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2024.106520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) presents a significant challenge in both nosocomial and community settings due to its pathogenicity. The emergence of drug-resistant strains exacerbates S. aureus infections, leading to increased mortality rates. PyrG, a member of the cytidine triphosphate (CTP) synthase family, serves as a crucial therapeutic target against S. aureus due to the pivotal role of CTP in cellular metabolism. However, the structural and mechanistic details of S. aureus PyrG remains unknown. Here, we successfully expressed and purified monomeric PyrG. Mutational experiments were conducted based on the results of molecular docking. Based on the results of the molecular docking, we carried out mutation experiments and found that Q386A dramatically decreased the CTP synthase activity compared to the wild-type protein, while Y54A almost completely abolished the activity. Exposure of S. aureus to the kinase inhibitor crizotinib increased expression of gene pyrG. Our results identify the two key sites on PyrG for the CTP synthase activity, and present PyrG gene expression increased during the treatment of crizotinib, which may eventually provide valuable guidance for the development of new drugs against S. aureus infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dafeng Liu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Lavender Conservation and Utilization, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Yili Normal University, Yining, 835000, Xinjiang, China; School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, Fujian, China.
| | - Zhu Tian
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Lavender Conservation and Utilization, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Yili Normal University, Yining, 835000, Xinjiang, China
| | - Kuerban Tusong
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Lavender Conservation and Utilization, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Yili Normal University, Yining, 835000, Xinjiang, China
| | - Hayrinsa Mamat
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Lavender Conservation and Utilization, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Yili Normal University, Yining, 835000, Xinjiang, China
| | - Yihan Luo
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Lavender Conservation and Utilization, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Yili Normal University, Yining, 835000, Xinjiang, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Guo CJ, Zhang Z, Lu JL, Zhong J, Wu YF, Guo SY, Liu JL. Structural basis of bifunctional CTP/dCTP synthase. J Mol Biol 2024:168750. [PMID: 39173734 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2024.168750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 08/16/2024] [Accepted: 08/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
The final step in the de novo synthesis of cytidine 5'-triphosphate (CTP) is catalyzed by CTP synthase (CTPS), which can form cytoophidia in all three domains of life. Recently, we have discovered that CTPS binds to ribonucleotides (NTPs) to form filaments, and have successfully solved the structures of Drosophila melanogaster CTPS bound with NTPs. Previous biochemical studies have shown that CTPS can bind to deoxyribonucleotides (dNTPs) to produce 2'-deoxycytidine-5'-triphosphate (dCTP). However, the structural basis of CTPS binding to dNTPs is still unclear. In this study, we find that Drosophila CTPS can also form filaments with dNTPs. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we are able to solve the structure of Drosophila melanogaster CTPS bound to dNTPs with a resolution of up to 2.7 Å. By combining these structural findings with biochemical analysis, we compare the binding and reaction characteristics of NTPs and dNTPs with CTPS. Our results indicate that the same enzyme can act bifunctionally as CTP/dCTP synthase in vitro, and provide a structural basis for these activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Jun Guo
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Zherong Zhang
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Jia-Li Lu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Jiale Zhong
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Yu-Fen Wu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Shu-Ying Guo
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Ji-Long Liu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China; Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PT, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bearne SL. Biochemical communication between filament-forming enzymes: Potential Regulatory Roles of Metabolites in Enzyme Co-assemblies with CTP Synthase. Bioessays 2024; 46:e2400063. [PMID: 38975656 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202400063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
A host of metabolic enzymes reversibly self-assemble to form membrane-less, intracellular filaments under normal physiological conditions and in response to stress. Often, these enzymes reside at metabolic control points, suggesting that filament formation affords an additional regulatory mechanism. Examples include cytidine-5'-triphosphate (CTP) synthase (CTPS), which catalyzes the rate-limiting step for the de novo biosynthesis of CTP; inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), which controls biosynthetic access to guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP); and ∆1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) synthase (P5CS) that catalyzes the formation of P5C, which links the Krebs cycle, urea cycle, and proline metabolism. Intriguingly, CTPS can exist in co-assemblies with IMPDH or P5CS. Since GTP is an allosteric activator of CTPS, the association of CTPS and IMPDH filaments accords with the need to coordinate pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis. Herein, a hypothesis is presented furnishing a biochemical connection underlying co-assembly of CTPS and P5CS filaments - potent inhibition of CTPS by glutamate γ-semialdehyde, the open-chain form of P5C.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen L Bearne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lynch EM, Lu Y, Park JH, Shao L, Kollman J, Rego EH. Evolutionarily divergent Mycobacterium tuberculosis CTP synthase filaments are under selective pressure. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.25.605180. [PMID: 39091829 PMCID: PMC11291164 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.25.605180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
The final and rate-limiting enzyme in pyrimidine biosynthesis, CTP synthase (CTPS), is essential for the viability of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria. Its product, CTP, is critical for RNA, DNA, lipid and cell wall synthesis, and is involved in chromosome segregation. In various organisms across the tree of life, CTPS assembles into higher-order filaments, leading us to hypothesize that M. tuberculosis CTPS (mtCTPS) also forms higher-order structures. Here, we show that mtCTPS does assemble into filaments but with an unusual architecture not seen in other organisms. Through a combination of structural, biochemical, and cellular techniques, we show that polymerization stabilizes the active conformation of the enzyme and resists product inhibition, potentially allowing for the highly localized production of CTP within the cell. Indeed, CTPS filaments localize near the CTP-dependent complex needed for chromosome segregation, and cells expressing mutant enzymes unable to polymerize are altered in their ability to robustly form this complex. Intriguingly, mutants that alter filament formation are under positive selection in clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis , pointing to a critical role needed to withstand pressures imposed by the host and/or antibiotics. Taken together, our data reveal an unexpected mechanism for the spatially organized production of a critical nucleotide in M. tuberculosis , which may represent a vulnerability of the pathogen that can be exploited with chemotherapy.
Collapse
|
6
|
Xie T, Qin C, Savas AC, Yeh WW, Feng P. The emerging roles of glutamine amidotransferases in metabolism and immune defense. NUCLEOSIDES, NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38743960 DOI: 10.1080/15257770.2024.2351135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Glutamine amidotransferases (GATs) catalyze the synthesis of nucleotides, amino acids, glycoproteins and an enzyme cofactor, thus serving as key metabolic enzymes for cell proliferation. Carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase, Aspartate transcarbamoylase, and Dihydroorotase (CAD) is a multifunctional enzyme of the GAT family and catalyzes the first three steps of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis. Following our findings that cellular GATs are involved in immune evasion during herpesvirus infection, we discovered that CAD reprograms cellular metabolism to fuel aerobic glycolysis and nucleotide synthesis via deamidating RelA. Deamidated RelA activates the expression of key glycolytic enzymes, rather than that of the inflammatory NF-κB-responsive genes. As such, cancer cells prime RelA for deamidation via up-regulating CAD activity or accumulating RelA mutations. Interestingly, the recently emerged SARS-CoV-2 also activates CAD to couple evasion of inflammatory response to activated nucleotide synthesis. A small molecule inhibitor of CAD depletes nucleotide supply and boosts antiviral inflammatory response, thus greatly reducing SARS-CoV-2 replication. Additionally, we also found that CTP synthase 1 (CTPS1) deamidates interferon (IFN) regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) to mute IFN induction. Our previous studies have implicated phosphoribosyl formylglycinamidine synthase (PFAS) and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate amidotransferase (PPAT) in deamidating retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and evading dsRNA-induced innate immune defense in herpesvirus infection. Overall, these studies have uncovered an unconventional enzymatic activity of cellular GATs in metabolism and immune defense, offering a molecular link intimately coupling these fundamental biological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taolin Xie
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Chao Qin
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Ali Can Savas
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Wayne Wei Yeh
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Pinghui Feng
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Li Z, Zhong Y, Qing Z, Li Z. A circuitous route for in vitro multi-enzyme cascade production of cytidine triphosphate to overcome the thermodynamic bottleneck. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2024; 11:6. [PMID: 38647971 PMCID: PMC10992187 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-023-00724-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Cytidine triphosphate (CTP), as a substance involved in the metabolism of phospholipids, proteins and nucleic acids, has precise drug effects and is a direct precursor for the synthesis of drugs such as citicoline. In this study, we established an in vitro six-enzyme cascade system to generate CTP. To avoid thermodynamic bottlenecks, we employed a circuitous and two-stage reaction strategy. Using cytidine as the key substrate, the final product CTP is obtained via the deamination and uridine phosphorylation pathways, relying on the irreversible reaction of cytidine triphosphate synthase to catalyze the amination of uridine triphosphate. Several extremophilic microbial-derived deaminases were screened and characterized, and a suitable cytidine deaminase was selected to match the first-stage reaction conditions. In addition, directed evolution modification of the rate-limiting enzyme CTP synthetase in the pathway yielded a variant that successfully relieved the product feedback inhibition, along with a 1.7-fold increase in activity over the wild type. After optimizing the reaction conditions, we finally carried out the catalytic reaction at an initial cytidine concentration of 20 mM, and the yield of CTP exceeded 82% within 10.0 h.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zonglin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Yahui Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Zhoulei Qing
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Zhimin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China.
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
McGary LC, Regan GL, Bearne SL. Reactive architecture profiling with a methyl acyl phosphate electrophile. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2023; 1871:140945. [PMID: 37536394 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2023.140945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Activity-based protein profiling has facilitated the study of the activity of enzymes in proteomes, inhibitor development, and identification of enzymes that share mechanistic and active-site architectural features. Since methyl acyl phosphate monoesters act as electrostatically selective anionic electrophiles for the covalent modification of nucleophiles that reside adjacent to cationic sites in proteins, we synthesized methyl hex-5-ynoyl phosphate (MHP) to broadly target such protein architectures. After treating the soluble proteome of Paucimonas lemoignei with MHP, biotinylating the resulting acylated proteins using click chemistry, enriching the protein adducts using streptavidin, and analyzing the proteins by LC-MS/MS, a set of 240 enzymes and 132 non-enzyme proteins were identified for a wide spectrum of biological processes and from all 7 enzyme classes. Among those enzymes identified, β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (PlHBDH) and CTP synthase (E. coli orthologue, EcCTPS) were purified as recombinant enzymes and their rates of inactivation and sites of modification by MHP and methyl acetyl phosphate (MAP) were characterized. MHP reacted more slowly with these proteins than MAP but exhibited greater specificity, despite its lack of multiple binding determinants. Generally, MAP modified more surface residues than MHP. MHP specifically modified Ser 146, Lys 156, and Lys 163 at the active site of PlHBDH. MHP and MAP modified numerous residues of EcCTPS with CTP furnishing the greatest level of protection against MHP- and MAP-dependent modification and inactivation, respectively, followed by ATP and glutamine. Overall, MHP served as an effective probe to identify proteins that are potentially amenable to inhibition by methyl acyl phosphates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura C McGary
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Gemma L Regan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Stephen L Bearne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Impact of Negative Feedbacks on De Novo Pyrimidines Biosynthesis in Escherichia coli. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054806. [PMID: 36902235 PMCID: PMC10003070 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Earlier studies aimed at investigating the metabolism of endogenous nucleoside triphosphates in synchronous cultures of E. coli cells revealed an auto-oscillatory mode of functioning of the pyrimidine and purine nucleotide biosynthesis system, which the authors associated with the dynamics of cell division. Theoretically, this system has an intrinsic oscillatory potential, since the dynamics of its functioning are controlled through feedback mechanisms. The question of whether the nucleotide biosynthesis system has its own oscillatory circuit is still open. To address this issue, an integral mathematical model of pyrimidine biosynthesis was developed, taking into account all experimentally verified negative feedback in the regulation of enzymatic reactions, the data of which were obtained under in vitro conditions. Analysis of the dynamic modes of the model functioning has shown that in the pyrimidine biosynthesis system, both the steady-state and oscillatory functioning modes can be realized under certain sets of kinetic parameters that fit in the physiological boundaries of the investigated metabolic system. It has been demonstrated that the occurrence of the oscillatory nature of metabolite synthesis depended on the ratio of two parameters: the Hill coefficient, hUMP1-the nonlinearity of the UMP effect on the activity of carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase, and the parameter r characterizing the contribution of the noncompetitive mechanism of UTP inhibition to the regulation of the enzymatic reaction of UMP phosphorylation. Thus, it has been theoretically shown that the E. coli pyrimidine biosynthesis system possesses its own oscillatory circuit whose oscillatory potential depends to a significant degree on the mechanism of regulation of UMP kinase activity.
Collapse
|
10
|
Darekar S, Laín S. Asymmetric inheritance of cytoophidia could contribute to determine cell fate and plasticity: The onset of alternative differentiation patterns in daughter cells may rely on the acquisition of either CTPS or IMPDH cytoophidia: The onset of alternative differentiation patterns in daughter cells may rely on the acquisition of either CTPS or IMPDH cytoophidia. Bioessays 2022; 44:e2200128. [PMID: 36209393 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202200128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Two enzymes involved in the synthesis of pyrimidine and purine nucleotides, CTP synthase (CTPS) and IMP dehydrogenase (IMPDH), can assemble into a single or very few large filaments called rods and rings (RR) or cytoophidia. Most recently, asymmetric cytoplasmic distribution of organelles during cell division has been described as a decisive event in hematopoietic stem cell fate. We propose that cytoophidia, which could be considered as membrane-less organelles, may also be distributed asymmetrically during mammalian cell division as previously described for Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Furthermore, because each type of nucleotide intervenes in distinct processes (e.g., membrane synthesis, glycosylation, and G protein-signaling), alterations in the rate of synthesis of specific nucleotide types could influence cell differentiation in multiple ways. Therefore, we hypothesize that whether a daughter cell inherits or not CTPS or IMPDH filaments determines its fate and that this asymmetric inheritance, together with the dynamic nature of these structures enables plasticity in a cell population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suhas Darekar
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sonia Laín
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gillis TD, Bearne SL. Effects of the 5'-Triphosphate Metabolites of Ribavirin, Sofosbuvir, Vidarabine, and Molnupiravir on CTP Synthase Catalysis and Filament Formation: Implications for Repurposing Antiviral Agents against SARS-CoV-2. ChemMedChem 2022; 17:e202200399. [PMID: 36184568 PMCID: PMC9538051 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202200399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Repurposing of antiviral drugs affords a rapid and effective strategy to develop therapies to counter pandemics such as COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 replication is closely linked to the metabolism of cytosine-containing nucleotides, especially cytidine-5'-triphosphate (CTP), such that the integrity of the viral genome is highly sensitive to intracellular CTP levels. CTP synthase (CTPS) catalyzes the rate-limiting step for the de novo biosynthesis of CTP. Hence, it is of interest to know the effects of the 5'-triphosphate (TP) metabolites of repurposed antiviral agents on CTPS activity. Using E. coli CTPS as a model enzyme, we show that ribavirin-5'-TP is a weak allosteric activator of CTPS, while sofosbuvir-5'-TP and adenine-arabinofuranoside-5'-TP are both substrates. β-d-N4 -Hydroxycytidine-5'-TP is a weak competitive inhibitor relative to CTP, but induces filament formation by CTPS. Alternatively, sofosbuvir-5'-TP prevented CTP-induced filament formation. These results reveal the underlying potential for repurposed antivirals to affect the activity of a critical pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthetic enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D. Gillis
- Dalhousie UniversityDepartment of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology5850 College St.Tupper Medical Building, 9JB3H 4R2HalifaxCANADA
| | - Stephen L. Bearne
- Dalhousie UniversityBiochemistry & Molecular Biology5850 College StreetTupper Medical BuildingB3H 4R2HalifaxCANADA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Alqahtani SS, Koltai T, Ibrahim ME, Bashir AHH, Alhoufie STS, Ahmed SBM, Molfetta DD, Carvalho TMA, Cardone RA, Reshkin SJ, Hifny A, Ahmed ME, Alfarouk KO. Role of pH in Regulating Cancer Pyrimidine Synthesis. J Xenobiot 2022; 12:158-180. [PMID: 35893264 PMCID: PMC9326563 DOI: 10.3390/jox12030014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Replication is a fundamental aspect of cancer, and replication is about reproducing all the elements and structures that form a cell. Among them are DNA, RNA, enzymes, and coenzymes. All the DNA is doubled during each S (synthesis) cell cycle phase. This means that six billion nucleic acids must be synthesized in each cycle. Tumor growth, proliferation, and mutations all depend on this synthesis. Cancer cells require a constant supply of nucleotides and other macromolecules. For this reason, they must stimulate de novo nucleotide synthesis to support nucleic acid provision. When deregulated, de novo nucleic acid synthesis is controlled by oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes that enable increased synthesis and cell proliferation. Furthermore, cell duplication must be achieved swiftly (in a few hours) and in the midst of a nutrient-depleted and hypoxic environment. This also means that the enzymes participating in nucleic acid synthesis must work efficiently. pH is a critical factor in enzymatic efficiency and speed. This review will show that the enzymatic machinery working in nucleic acid synthesis requires a pH on the alkaline side in most cases. This coincides with many other pro-tumoral factors, such as the glycolytic phenotype, benefiting from an increased intracellular pH. An increased intracellular pH is a perfect milieu for high de novo nucleic acid production through optimal enzymatic performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saad Saeed Alqahtani
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia;
- Pharmacy Practice Research Unit, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Muntaser E. Ibrahim
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum 11111, Sudan; (M.E.I.); (A.H.H.B.)
| | - Adil H. H. Bashir
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum 11111, Sudan; (M.E.I.); (A.H.H.B.)
| | - Sari T. S. Alhoufie
- Medical Laboratories Technology Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Medina 42353, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Samrein B. M. Ahmed
- Department of Biosciences and Chemistry, College of Health, Wellbeing and Life Sciences, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK;
| | - Daria Di Molfetta
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy; (D.D.M.); (T.M.A.C.); (R.A.C.); (S.J.R.)
| | - Tiago M. A. Carvalho
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy; (D.D.M.); (T.M.A.C.); (R.A.C.); (S.J.R.)
| | - Rosa Angela Cardone
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy; (D.D.M.); (T.M.A.C.); (R.A.C.); (S.J.R.)
| | - Stephan Joel Reshkin
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy; (D.D.M.); (T.M.A.C.); (R.A.C.); (S.J.R.)
| | | | - Mohamed E. Ahmed
- Research Center, Zamzam University College, Khartoum 11123, Sudan;
| | - Khalid Omer Alfarouk
- Research Center, Zamzam University College, Khartoum 11123, Sudan;
- Alfarouk Biomedical Research LLC, Temple Terrace, FL 33617, USA
- Hala Alfarouk Cancer Center, Khartoum 11123, Sudan
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
GTP-Dependent Regulation of CTP Synthase: Evolving Insights into Allosteric Activation and NH3 Translocation. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12050647. [PMID: 35625575 PMCID: PMC9138612 DOI: 10.3390/biom12050647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytidine-5′-triphosphate (CTP) synthase (CTPS) is the class I glutamine-dependent amidotransferase (GAT) that catalyzes the last step in the de novo biosynthesis of CTP. Glutamine hydrolysis is catalyzed in the GAT domain and the liberated ammonia is transferred via an intramolecular tunnel to the synthase domain where the ATP-dependent amination of UTP occurs to form CTP. CTPS is unique among the glutamine-dependent amidotransferases, requiring an allosteric effector (GTP) to activate the GAT domain for efficient glutamine hydrolysis. Recently, the first cryo-electron microscopy structure of Drosophila CTPS was solved with bound ATP, UTP, and, notably, GTP, as well as the covalent adduct with 6-diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine. This structural information, along with the numerous site-directed mutagenesis, kinetics, and structural studies conducted over the past 50 years, provide more detailed insights into the elaborate conformational changes that accompany GTP binding at the GAT domain and their contribution to catalysis. Interactions between GTP and the L2 loop, the L4 loop from an adjacent protomer, the L11 lid, and the L13 loop (or unique flexible “wing” region), induce conformational changes that promote the hydrolysis of glutamine at the GAT domain; however, direct experimental evidence on the specific mechanism by which these conformational changes facilitate catalysis at the GAT domain is still lacking. Significantly, the conformational changes induced by GTP binding also affect the assembly and maintenance of the NH3 tunnel. Hence, in addition to promoting glutamine hydrolysis, the allosteric effector plays an important role in coordinating the reactions catalyzed by the GAT and synthase domains of CTPS.
Collapse
|
14
|
Sharma N, Singh S, Tanwar AS, Mondal J, Anand R. Mechanism of Coordinated Gating and Signal Transduction in Purine Biosynthetic Enzyme Formylglycinamidine Synthetase. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c05521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nandini Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Sukhwinder Singh
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Ajay S. Tanwar
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Jagannath Mondal
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Science, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Hyderabad 500107, India
| | - Ruchi Anand
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Oka N, Hirabayashi H, Kumada K, Ando K. Synthesis of xanthosine 2-phosphate diesters via phosphitylation of the carbonyl group. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2021; 54:128439. [PMID: 34748937 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2021.128439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
O2-Phosphodiesterification of xanthosine has been achieved by a one-pot procedure consisting of the phosphitylation of the 2-carbonyl group of appropriately protected xanthosine derivatives using phosphoramidites and N-(cyanomethyl)dimethylammonium triflate (CMMT), oxidation of the resulting xanthosine 2-phosphite triesters, and deprotection. In addition, a study on the hydrolytic stability of a fully deprotected xanthosine 2-phosphate diester has revealed that it is more stable at higher pH.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natsuhisa Oka
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Engineering, Gifu University, Japan; Center for Highly Advanced Integration of Nano and Life Sciences, Gifu University (G-CHAIN), Japan; Institute for Glyco-core Research (iGCORE), Gifu University 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan.
| | - Hiroki Hirabayashi
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Engineering, Gifu University, Japan
| | - Kota Kumada
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Engineering, Gifu University, Japan
| | - Kaori Ando
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Engineering, Gifu University, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Hansen JM, Horowitz A, Lynch EM, Farrell DP, Quispe J, DiMaio F, Kollman JM. Cryo-EM structures of CTP synthase filaments reveal mechanism of pH-sensitive assembly during budding yeast starvation. eLife 2021; 10:73368. [PMID: 34734801 PMCID: PMC8641951 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Many metabolic enzymes self-assemble into micron-scale filaments to organize and regulate metabolism. The appearance of these assemblies often coincides with large metabolic changes as in development, cancer, and stress. Yeast undergo cytoplasmic acidification upon starvation, triggering the assembly of many metabolic enzymes into filaments. However, it is unclear how these filaments assemble at the molecular level and what their role is in the yeast starvation response. CTP Synthase (CTPS) assembles into metabolic filaments across many species. Here, we characterize in vitro polymerization and investigate in vivo consequences of CTPS assembly in yeast. Cryo-EM structures reveal a pH-sensitive assembly mechanism and highly ordered filament bundles that stabilize an inactive state of the enzyme, features unique to yeast CTPS. Disruption of filaments in cells with non-assembly or pH-insensitive mutations decreases growth rate, reflecting the importance of regulated CTPS filament assembly in homeotstasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse M Hansen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, United States.,Graduate Program in Biological Physics, Structure, and Design, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Avital Horowitz
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Eric M Lynch
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Daniel P Farrell
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Joel Quispe
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Frank DiMaio
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Justin M Kollman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Pan M, Liu Y, Zheng X, Zhou M, You C, Dai X. Comprehensive profiling of CTP-binding proteins using a biotinylated CTP affinity probe. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2021.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
18
|
Structural basis for isoform-specific inhibition of human CTPS1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2107968118. [PMID: 34583994 PMCID: PMC8501788 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2107968118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An effective immune response depends on the proliferation of T cells, a process that requires the enzyme CTP synthase 1 (CTPS1). Individuals lacking CTPS1 due to a rare genetic disorder exhibit severe immunodeficiencies but lack other major clinical consequences; the requirement for CTP synthase outside of the immune response is met by a second isoform, CTPS2. Inhibiting CTPS1 without affecting CTPS2 is therefore a promising strategy for treating autoimmune disorders and T cell cancers while avoiding off-target effects. We characterize both CTPS1-selective and nonselective inhibitors. Structures of CTPS bound to inhibitors reveal the mechanisms of inhibition and CTPS1 selectivity. Differences in product feedback inhibition between CTPS1 and CTPS2 explain how CTPS1 may sustain enzymatic activity required for T cell proliferation. Cytidine triphosphate synthase 1 (CTPS1) is necessary for an effective immune response, as revealed by severe immunodeficiency in CTPS1-deficient individuals [E. Martin et al.], [Nature] [510], [288–292] ([2014]). CTPS1 expression is up-regulated in activated lymphocytes to expand CTP pools [E. Martin et al.], [Nature] [510], [288–292] ([2014]), satisfying increased demand for nucleic acid and lipid synthesis [L. D. Fairbanks, M. Bofill, K. Ruckemann, H. A. Simmonds], [J. Biol. Chem. ] [270], [29682–29689] ([1995]). Demand for CTP in other tissues is met by the CTPS2 isoform and nucleoside salvage pathways [E. Martin et al.], [Nature] [510], [288–292] ([2014]). Selective inhibition of the proliferative CTPS1 isoform is therefore desirable in the treatment of immune disorders and lymphocyte cancers, but little is known about differences in regulation of the isoforms or mechanisms of known inhibitors. We show that CTP regulates both isoforms by binding in two sites that clash with substrates. CTPS1 is less sensitive to CTP feedback inhibition, consistent with its role in increasing CTP levels in proliferation. We also characterize recently reported small-molecule inhibitors, both CTPS1 selective and nonselective. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures reveal these inhibitors mimic CTP binding in one inhibitory site, where a single amino acid substitution explains selectivity for CTPS1. The inhibitors bind to CTPS assembled into large-scale filaments, which for CTPS1 normally represents a hyperactive form of the enzyme [E. M. Lynch et al.], [Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol.] [24], [507–514] ([2017]). This highlights the utility of cryo-EM in drug discovery, particularly for cases in which targets form large multimeric assemblies not amenable to structure determination by other techniques. Both inhibitors also inhibit the proliferation of human primary T cells. The mechanisms of selective inhibition of CTPS1 lay the foundation for the design of immunosuppressive therapies.
Collapse
|
19
|
Yang L, Hu X, Chai X, Ye Q, Pang J, Li D, Hou T. Opportunities for overcoming tuberculosis: Emerging targets and their inhibitors. Drug Discov Today 2021; 27:326-336. [PMID: 34537334 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2021.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), an airborne infectious disease mainly caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), remains a leading cause of human morbidity and mortality worldwide. Given the alarming rise of resistance to anti-TB drugs and latent TB infection (LTBI), new targets and novel bioactive compounds are urgently needed for the treatment of this disease. We provide an overview of the recent advances in anti-TB drug discovery, emphasizing several newly validated targets for which an inhibitor has been reported in the past five years. Our review presents several attractive directions that have potential for the development of next-generation therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liu Yang
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Xueping Hu
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Xin Chai
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Qing Ye
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Jinping Pang
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Dan Li
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Tingjun Hou
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; State Key Lab of Computer-aided Design and Computer Graphics (CAD&CG), Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
Cytidine triphosphate synthase (CTPS), which comprises an ammonia ligase domain and a glutamine amidotransferase domain, catalyzes the final step of de novo CTP biosynthesis. The activity of CTPS is regulated by the binding of four nucleotides and glutamine. While glutamine serves as an ammonia donor for the ATP-dependent conversion of UTP to CTP, the fourth nucleotide GTP acts as an allosteric activator. Models have been proposed to explain the mechanisms of action at the active site of the ammonia ligase domain and the conformational changes derived by GTP binding. However, actual GTP/ATP/UTP binding modes and relevant conformational changes have not been revealed fully. Here, we report the discovery of binding modes of four nucleotides and a glutamine analog 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine in Drosophila CTPS by cryo-electron microscopy with near-atomic resolution. Interactions between GTP and surrounding residues indicate that GTP acts to coordinate reactions at both domains by directly blocking ammonia leakage and stabilizing the ammonia tunnel. Additionally, we observe the ATP-dependent UTP phosphorylation intermediate and determine interacting residues at the ammonia ligase. A noncanonical CTP binding at the ATP binding site suggests another layer of feedback inhibition. Our findings not only delineate the structure of CTPS in the presence of all substrates but also complete our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the allosteric regulation and CTP synthesis.
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with 200,000 cancers annually, including B-cell lymphomas in immunosuppressed hosts. Hypomorphic mutations of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway enzyme cytidine 5′ triphosphate synthase 1 (CTPS1) suppress cell-mediated immunity, resulting in fulminant EBV infection and EBV+ central nervous system (CNS) lymphomas. Since CTP is a critical precursor for DNA, RNA, and phospholipid synthesis, this observation raises the question of whether the isozyme CTPS2 or cytidine salvage pathways help meet CTP demand in EBV-infected B cells. Here, we found that EBV upregulated CTPS1 and CTPS2 with distinct kinetics in newly infected B cells. While CRISPR CTPS1 knockout caused DNA damage and proliferation defects in lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs), which express the EBV latency III program observed in CNS lymphomas, double CTPS1/2 knockout caused stronger phenotypes. EBNA2, MYC, and noncanonical NF-κB positively regulated CTPS1 expression. CTPS1 depletion impaired EBV lytic DNA synthesis, suggesting that latent EBV may drive pathogenesis with CTPS1 deficiency. Cytidine rescued CTPS1/2 deficiency phenotypes in EBV-transformed LCLs and Burkitt B cells, highlighting CTPS1/2 as a potential therapeutic target for EBV-driven lymphoproliferative disorders. Collectively, our results suggest that CTPS1 and CTPS2 have partially redundant roles in EBV-transformed B cells and provide insights into EBV pathogenesis with CTPS1 deficiency.
Collapse
|
22
|
Emami K, Wu LJ, Errington J. A Small Molecule Inhibitor of CTP Synthetase Identified by Differential Activity on a Bacillus subtilis Mutant Deficient in Class A Penicillin-Binding Proteins. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:2001. [PMID: 32973723 PMCID: PMC7479849 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.02001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In the course of screening for compounds with differential growth inhibition activity on a mutant of Bacillus subtilis lacking all four class A penicillin-binding proteins (Δ4), we came across an isoquinoline derivative, IQ-1 carboxylic acid (IQC) with relatively high activity on the mutant compared to the wild type strain. Treated cells were slightly elongated and had altered chromosome morphology. Mutants of Δ4 resistant to IQC were isolated and subjected to whole genome sequencing. Most of the mutants were affected in the gene, pyrG, encoding CTP synthetase (CTPS). Purified wild type CTPS was inhibited in vitro by IQC. Two of the three mutant proteins purified showed decreased sensitivity to IQC in vitro. Finally, inhibition by IQC was rescued by addition of cytidine but not uridine to the growth medium, consistent with the notion that IQC acts by reducing the synthesis of CTP or a related compound. IQC provides a promising new starting point for antibiotic inhibitors of CTPS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaveh Emami
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Ling Juan Wu
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Jeff Errington
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Zhou S, Xiang H, Liu JL. CTP synthase forms cytoophidia in archaea. J Genet Genomics 2020; 47:213-223. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jgg.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
24
|
Lynch EM, Kollman JM. Coupled structural transitions enable highly cooperative regulation of human CTPS2 filaments. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2019; 27:42-48. [PMID: 31873303 PMCID: PMC6954954 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-019-0352-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Many enzymes assemble into defined oligomers, providing a mechanism for cooperatively regulating activity. Recent studies have described a mode of regulation in which enzyme activity is modulated by polymerization into large-scale filaments. Here we describe an ultrasensitive form of polymerization-based regulation employed by human CTP synthase 2 (CTPS2). Cryo-EM structures reveal that CTPS2 filaments dynamically switch between active and inactive forms in response to changes in substrate and product levels. Linking the conformational state of many CTPS2 subunits in a filament results in highly cooperative regulation, greatly exceeding the limits of cooperativity for the CTPS2 tetramer alone. The structures reveal a link between conformation and control of ammonia channeling between the enzyme’s active sites, and explain differences in regulation of human CTPS isoforms. This filament-based mechanism of enhanced cooperativity demonstrates how the widespread phenomenon of enzyme polymerization can be adapted to achieve different regulatory outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric M Lynch
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Justin M Kollman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Holič R, Pokorná L, Griač P. Metabolism of phospholipids in the yeast
Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Yeast 2019; 37:73-92. [DOI: 10.1002/yea.3451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Roman Holič
- Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics Dúbravská cesta 9 Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Lucia Pokorná
- Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics Dúbravská cesta 9 Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Peter Griač
- Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics Dúbravská cesta 9 Bratislava Slovakia
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Park CK, Horton NC. Structures, functions, and mechanisms of filament forming enzymes: a renaissance of enzyme filamentation. Biophys Rev 2019; 11:927-994. [PMID: 31734826 PMCID: PMC6874960 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-019-00602-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Filament formation by non-cytoskeletal enzymes has been known for decades, yet only relatively recently has its wide-spread role in enzyme regulation and biology come to be appreciated. This comprehensive review summarizes what is known for each enzyme confirmed to form filamentous structures in vitro, and for the many that are known only to form large self-assemblies within cells. For some enzymes, studies describing both the in vitro filamentous structures and cellular self-assembly formation are also known and described. Special attention is paid to the detailed structures of each type of enzyme filament, as well as the roles the structures play in enzyme regulation and in biology. Where it is known or hypothesized, the advantages conferred by enzyme filamentation are reviewed. Finally, the similarities, differences, and comparison to the SgrAI endonuclease system are also highlighted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chad K. Park
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
| | - Nancy C. Horton
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Daumann M, Hickl D, Zimmer D, DeTar RA, Kunz HH, Möhlmann T. Characterization of filament-forming CTP synthases from Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 96:316-328. [PMID: 30030857 PMCID: PMC6821390 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Cytidine triphosphate (CTP) is essential for DNA, RNA and phospholipid biosynthesis. De novo synthesis is catalyzed by CTP synthases (CTPS). Arabidopsis encodes five CTPS isoforms that unanimously share conserved motifs found across kingdoms, suggesting all five are functional enzymes. Whereas CTPS1-4 are expressed throughout Arabidopsis tissues, CTPS5 reveals exclusive expression in developing embryos. CTPS activity and substrates affinities were determined for a representative plant enzyme on purified recombinant CTPS3 protein. As demonstrated in model organisms such as yeast, fruit fly and mammals, CTPS show the capacity to assemble into large filaments called cytoophidia. Transient expression of N- and C-terminal YFP-CTPS fusion proteins in Nicotiana benthamiana allowed to monitor such filament formation. Interestingly, CTPS1 and 2 always appeared as soluble proteins, whereas filaments were observed for CTPS3, 4 and 5 independent of the YFP-tag location. However, when similar constructs were expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, no filaments were observed, pointing to a requirement for organism-specific factors in vivo. Indications for filament assembly were also obtained in vitro when recombinant CTPS3 protein was incubated in the presence of CTP. T-DNA-insertion mutants in four CTPS loci revealed no apparent phenotypical alteration. In contrast, CTPS2 T-DNA-insertion mutants did not produce homozygous progenies. An initial characterization of the CTPS protein family members from Arabidopsis is presented. We provide evidence for their involvement in nucleotide de novo synthesis and show that only three of the five CTPS isoforms were able to form filamentous structures in the transient tobacco expression system. This represents a striking difference from previous observations in prokaryotes, yeast, Drosophila and mammalian cells. This finding will be highly valuable to further understand the role of filament formation to regulate CTPS activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Daumann
- Pflanzenphysiologie, Fachbereich Biologie, Universität Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrodinger-Straße, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany, and
| | - Daniel Hickl
- Pflanzenphysiologie, Fachbereich Biologie, Universität Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrodinger-Straße, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany, and
| | - David Zimmer
- Pflanzenphysiologie, Fachbereich Biologie, Universität Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrodinger-Straße, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany, and
| | - Rachael A. DeTar
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, PO Box 644236, Pullman, WA, 99164-4236, USA
| | - Hans-Henning Kunz
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, PO Box 644236, Pullman, WA, 99164-4236, USA
| | - Torsten Möhlmann
- Pflanzenphysiologie, Fachbereich Biologie, Universität Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrodinger-Straße, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany, and
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
McCluskey GD, Bearne SL. "Pinching" the ammonia tunnel of CTP synthase unveils coordinated catalytic and allosteric-dependent control of ammonia passage. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2714-2727. [PMID: 30251661 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Molecular gates within enzymes often play important roles in synchronizing catalytic events. We explored the role of a gate in cytidine-5'-triphosphate synthase (CTPS) from Escherichia coli. This glutamine amidotransferase catalyzes the biosynthesis of CTP from UTP using either l-glutamine or exogenous NH3 as a substrate. Glutamine is hydrolyzed in the glutaminase domain, with GTP acting as a positive allosteric effector, and the nascent NH3 passes through a gate located at the end of a ~25-Å tunnel before entering the synthase domain where CTP is generated. Substitution of the gate residue Val 60 by Ala, Cys, Asp, Trp, or Phe using site-directed mutagenesis and subsequent kinetic analyses revealed that V60-substitution impacts glutaminase activity, nucleotide binding, salt-dependent inhibition, and inter-domain NH3 transport. Surprisingly, the increase in steric bulk present in V60F perturbed the local structure consistent with "pinching" the tunnel, thereby revealing processes that synchronize the transfer of NH3 from the glutaminase domain to the synthase domain. V60F had a slightly reduced coupling efficiency at maximal glutaminase activity that was ameliorated by slowing down the glutamine hydrolysis reaction, consistent with a "bottleneck" effect. The inability of V60F to use exogenous NH3 was overcome in the presence of GTP, and more so if CTPS was covalently modified by 6-diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine. Use of NH2OH by V60F as an alternative bulkier substrate occurred most efficiently when it was concomitant with the glutaminase reaction. Thus, the glutaminase activity and GTP-dependent activation act in concert to open the NH3 gate of CTPS to mediate inter-domain NH3 transport.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory D McCluskey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Stephen L Bearne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Narvaez-Ortiz HY, Lopez AJ, Gupta N, Zimmermann BH. A CTP Synthase Undergoing Stage-Specific Spatial Expression Is Essential for the Survival of the Intracellular Parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:83. [PMID: 29623259 PMCID: PMC5874296 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytidine triphosphate synthase catalyzes the synthesis of cytidine 5′-triphosphate (CTP) from uridine 5′-triphosphate (UTP), the final step in the production of cytidine nucleotides. CTP synthases also form filamentous structures of different morphologies known as cytoophidia, whose functions in most organisms are unknown. Here, we identified and characterized a novel CTP synthase (TgCTPS) from Toxoplasma gondii. We show that TgCTPS is capable of substituting for its counterparts in the otherwise lethal double mutant (ura7Δ ura8Δ) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Equally, recombinant TgCTPS purified from Escherichia coli encodes for a functional protein in enzyme assays. The epitope-tagged TgCTPS under the control of its endogenous promoter displays a punctate cytosolic distribution, which undergoes spatial reorganization to form foci or filament-like structures when the parasite switches from a nutrient-replete (intracellular) to a nutrient-scarce (extracellular) condition. An analogous phenotype is observed upon nutrient stress or after treatment with a glutamine analog, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON). The exposure of parasites to DON disrupts the lytic cycle, and the TgCTPS is refractory to a genetic deletion, suggesting an essential requirement of this enzyme for T. gondii. Not least, this study, together with previous studies, supports that CTP synthase can serve as a potent drug target, because the parasite, unlike human host cells, cannot compensate for the lack of CTP synthase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea J Lopez
- Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Nishith Gupta
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Biophysical Analysis of Bacterial CTP Synthase Filaments Formed in the Presence of the Chemotherapeutic Metabolite Gemcitabine-5'-triphosphate. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:1201-1217. [PMID: 29501573 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
While enzyme activity is often regulated by a combination of substrate/effector availability and quaternary structure, many cytosolic enzymes may be further regulated through oligomerization into filaments. Cytidine-5'-triphosphate (CTP) synthase (CTPS) forms such filaments-a process that is promoted by the product CTP. The CTP analog and active chemotherapeutic metabolite gemcitabine-5'-triphosphate (dF-dCTP) is a potent inhibitor of CTPS; however, its effect on the enzyme's ability to form filaments is unknown. Alongside electron microscopy studies, dynamic light scattering showed that dF-dCTP induces Escherichia coli CTPS (EcCTPS) to form filaments in solution with lengths ≥30 nm in the presence of CTP or dF-dCTP. The substrate UTP blocks formation of filaments and effects their disassembly. EcCTPS variants were constructed to investigate the role of CTP-binding determinants in CTP- and dF-dCTP-dependent filament formation. Substitution of Glu 149 (i.e., E149D), which interacts with the ribose of CTP, caused reduced affinity for both CTP and dF-dCTP, and obviated filament formation. Phe 227 appears to interact with CTP through an edge-on interaction with the cytosine ring, yet the F227A and F227L variants bound CTP and dF-dCTP. F227A EcCTPS did not form filaments, while F227L EcCTPS formed shorter filaments in the presence of CTP or dF-dCTP. Hence, Phe 227 plays a role in filament formation, although replacement by a bulky hydrophobic amino acid is sufficient for limited filament formation. That dF-dCTP can induce filament formation highlights the fact that nucleotide analogs employed as chemotherapeutic agents may affect the filamentous states of enzymes and potentially alter their regulation in vivo.
Collapse
|
31
|
Li X, Xie J, Hei M, Tang J, Wang Y, Förster E, Zhao S. High level of CTP synthase induces formation of cytoophidia in cortical neurons and impairs corticogenesis. Histochem Cell Biol 2017; 149:61-73. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-017-1612-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
32
|
Endrizzi JA, Beernink PT. Charge neutralization in the active site of the catalytic trimer of aspartate transcarbamoylase promotes diverse structural changes. Protein Sci 2017; 26:2221-2228. [PMID: 28833948 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
A classical model for allosteric regulation of enzyme activity posits an equilibrium between inactive and active conformations. An alternative view is that allosteric activation is achieved by increasing the potential for conformational changes that are essential for catalysis. In the present study, substitution of a basic residue in the active site of the catalytic (C) trimer of aspartate transcarbamoylase with a non-polar residue results in large interdomain hinge changes in the three chains of the trimer. One conformation is more open than the chains in both the wild-type C trimer and the catalytic chains in the holoenzyme, the second is closed similar to the bisubstrate-analog bound conformation and the third hinge angle is intermediate to the other two. The active-site 240s loop conformation is very different between the most open and closed chains, and is disordered in the third chain, as in the holoenzyme. We hypothesize that binding of anionic substrates may promote similar structural changes. Further, the ability of the three catalytic chains in the trimer to access the open and closed active-site conformations simultaneously suggests a cyclic catalytic mechanism, in which at least one of the chains is in an open conformation suitable for substrate binding whereas another chain is closed for catalytic turnover. Based on the many conformations observed for the chains in the isolated catalytic trimer to date, we propose that allosteric activation of the holoenzyme occurs by release of quaternary constraint into an ensemble of active-site conformations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter T Beernink
- Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital, Oakland, California.,Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Sakamoto K, Ishibashi Y, Adachi R, Matsumoto SI, Oki H, Kamada Y, Sogabe S, Zama Y, Sakamoto JI, Tani A. Identification of cytidine-5-triphosphate synthase1-selective inhibitory peptide from random peptide library displayed on T7 phage. Peptides 2017; 94:56-63. [PMID: 28676225 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2017.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Cytidine triphosphate synthase 1 (CTPS1) is an enzyme expressed in activated lymphocytes that catalyzes the conversion of uridine triphosphate (UTP) to cytidine triphosphate (CTP) with ATP-dependent amination, using either L-glutamine or ammonia as the nitrogen source. Since CTP plays an important role in DNA/RNA synthesis, phospholipid synthesis, and protein sialyation, CTPS1-inhibition is expected to control lymphocyte proliferation and size expansion in inflammatory diseases. In contrast, CTPS2, an isozyme of CTPS1 possessing 74% amino acid sequence homology, is expressed in normal lymphocytes. Thus, CTPS1-selective inhibition is important to avoid undesirable side effects. Here, we report the discovery of CTpep-3: Ac-FRLGLLKAFRRLF-OH from random peptide libraries displayed on T7 phage, which exhibited CTPS1-selective binding with a KD value of 210nM in SPR analysis and CTPS1-selective inhibition with an IC50 value of 110nM in the enzyme assay. Furthermore, two fundamentally different approaches, enzyme inhibition assay and HDX-MS, provided the same conclusion that CTpep-3 acts by binding to the amidoligase (ALase) domain on CTPS1. To our knowledge, CTpep-3 is the first CTPS1-selective inhibitor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kotaro Sakamoto
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan.
| | - Yoshihiro Ishibashi
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Ryutaro Adachi
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Matsumoto
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Oki
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kamada
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Satoshi Sogabe
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Yumi Zama
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Jun-Ichi Sakamoto
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Akiyoshi Tani
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Lynch EM, Hicks DR, Shepherd M, Endrizzi JA, Maker A, Hansen JM, Barry RM, Gitai Z, Baldwin EP, Kollman JM. Human CTP synthase filament structure reveals the active enzyme conformation. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2017; 24:507-514. [PMID: 28459447 PMCID: PMC5472220 DOI: 10.1038/nsmb.3407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The universally conserved enzyme CTP synthase (CTPS) forms filaments in bacteria and eukaryotes. In bacteria, polymerization inhibits CTPS activity and is required for nucleotide homeostasis. Here we show that for human CTPS, polymerization increases catalytic activity. The cryo-EM structures of bacterial and human CTPS filaments differ considerably in overall architecture and in the conformation of the CTPS protomer, explaining the divergent consequences of polymerization on activity. The structure of human CTPS filament, the first structure of the full-length human enzyme, reveals a novel active conformation. The filament structures elucidate allosteric mechanisms of assembly and regulation that rely on a conserved conformational equilibrium. The findings may provide a mechanism for increasing human CTPS activity in response to metabolic state and challenge the assumption that metabolic filaments are generally storage forms of inactive enzymes. Allosteric regulation of CTPS polymerization by ligands likely represents a fundamental mechanism underlying assembly of other metabolic filaments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric M Lynch
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Derrick R Hicks
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Graduate Program in Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Matthew Shepherd
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - James A Endrizzi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Allison Maker
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Jesse M Hansen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Graduate Program in Biological Physics, Structure, and Design, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Rachael M Barry
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Zemer Gitai
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Enoch P Baldwin
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Justin M Kollman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Huang Y, Wang JJ, Ghosh S, Liu JL. Critical roles of CTP synthase N-terminal in cytoophidium assembly. Exp Cell Res 2017; 354:122-133. [PMID: 28342900 PMCID: PMC5405848 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2017.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Several metabolic enzymes assemble into distinct intracellular structures in prokaryotes and eukaryotes suggesting an important functional role in cell physiology. The CTP-generating enzyme CTP synthase forms long filamentous structures termed cytoophidia in bacteria, yeast, fruit flies and human cells independent of its catalytic activity. However, the amino acid determinants for protein-protein interaction necessary for polymerisation remained unknown. In this study, we systematically analysed the role of the conserved N-terminal of Drosophila CTP synthase in cytoophidium assembly. Our mutational analyses identified three key amino acid residues within this region that play an instructive role in organisation of CTP synthase into a filamentous structure. Co-transfection assays demonstrated formation of heteromeric CTP synthase filaments which is disrupted by protein carrying a mutated N-terminal alanine residue thus revealing a dominant-negative activity. Interestingly, the dominant-negative activity is supressed by the CTP synthase inhibitor DON. Furthermore, we found that the amino acids at the corresponding position in the human protein exhibit similar properties suggesting conservation of their function through evolution. Our data suggest that cytoophidium assembly is a multi-step process involving N-terminal-dependent sequential interactions between correctly folded structural units and provide insights into the assembly of these enigmatic structures. CTP synthase mutational analyses reveal N-terminal amino acids that regulate filament self-assembly. Amino acid 20 of CTP synthase plays key role in protein interactions necessary for polymerisation. The dominant-negative activity is supressed by CTP synthase inhibitor DON. The functional properties of the amino acids are conserved in Drosophila and human CTP synthases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Huang
- MRC Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom; Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jin-Jun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Sanjay Ghosh
- MRC Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom.
| | - Ji-Long Liu
- MRC Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom; School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Marques SM, Daniel L, Buryska T, Prokop Z, Brezovsky J, Damborsky J. Enzyme Tunnels and Gates As Relevant Targets in Drug Design. Med Res Rev 2016; 37:1095-1139. [PMID: 27957758 DOI: 10.1002/med.21430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Many enzymes contain tunnels and gates that are essential to their function. Gates reversibly switch between open and closed conformations and thereby control the traffic of small molecules-substrates, products, ions, and solvent molecules-into and out of the enzyme's structure via molecular tunnels. Many transient tunnels and gates undoubtedly remain to be identified, and their functional roles and utility as potential drug targets have received comparatively little attention. Here, we describe a set of general concepts relating to the structural properties, function, and classification of these interesting structural features. In addition, we highlight the potential of enzyme tunnels and gates as targets for the binding of small molecules. The different types of binding that are possible and the potential pharmacological benefits of such targeting are discussed. Twelve examples of ligands bound to the tunnels and/or gates of clinically relevant enzymes are used to illustrate the different binding modes and to explain some new strategies for drug design. Such strategies could potentially help to overcome some of the problems facing medicinal chemists and lead to the discovery of more effective drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio M Marques
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment, RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lukas Daniel
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment, RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Buryska
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment, RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment, RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Brezovsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment, RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment, RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
McCluskey GD, Mohamady S, Taylor SD, Bearne SL. Exploring the Potent Inhibition of CTP Synthase by Gemcitabine-5'-Triphosphate. Chembiochem 2016; 17:2240-2249. [PMID: 27643605 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
CTP synthase (CTPS) catalyzes the conversion of UTP to CTP and is a target for the development of antiviral, anticancer, antiprotozoal, and immunosuppressive agents. Exposure of cell lines to the antineoplastic cytidine analogue gemcitabine causes depletion of intracellular CTP levels, but the direct inhibition of CTPS by its metabolite gemcitabine-5'-triphosphate (dF-dCTP) has not been demonstrated. We show that dF-dCTP is a potent competitive inhibitor of Escherichia coli CTPS with respect to UTP [Ki =(3.0±0.1) μm], and that its binding affinity exceeds that of CTP ≈75-fold. Site-directed mutagenesis studies indicated that Glu149 is an important binding determinant for both CTP and dF-dCTP. Comparison of the binding affinities of the 5'-triphosphates of 2'-fluoro-2'-deoxycytidine and 2'-fluoro-2'-deoxyarabinocytidine revealed that the 2'-F-arabino group contributes markedly to the strong binding of dF-dCTP. Geminal 2'-F substitution on UTP (dF-dUTP) did not result in an increase in binding affinity with CTPS. Remarkably, CTPS catalyzed the conversion of dF-dUTP into dF-dCTP, thus suggesting that dF-dCTP might be regenerated in vivo from its catabolite dF-dUTP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory D McCluskey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Samy Mohamady
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The British University in Egypt, 11837, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Scott D Taylor
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Stephen L Bearne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4R2, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4R2, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Liu JL. The Cytoophidium and Its Kind: Filamentation and Compartmentation of Metabolic Enzymes. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2016; 32:349-372. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-111315-124907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Long Liu
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom;
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China;
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Habrian C, Chandrasekhara A, Shahrvini B, Hua B, Lee J, Jesinghaus R, Barry R, Gitai Z, Kollman J, Baldwin EP. Inhibition of Escherichia coli CTP Synthetase by NADH and Other Nicotinamides and Their Mutual Interactions with CTP and GTP. Biochemistry 2016; 55:5554-5565. [PMID: 27571563 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
CTP synthetases catalyze the last step of pyrimidine biosynthesis and provide the sole de novo source of cytosine-containing nucleotides. As a central regulatory hub, they are regulated by ribonucleotide and enzyme concentration through ATP and UTP substrate availability, CTP product inhibition, GTP allosteric modification, and quaternary structural changes including the formation of CTP-inhibited linear polymers (filaments). Here, we demonstrate that nicotinamide redox cofactors are moderate inhibitors of Escherichia coli CTP synthetase (EcCTPS). NADH and NADPH are the most potent, and the primary inhibitory determinant is the reduced nicotinamide ring. Although nicotinamide inhibition is noncompetitive with substrates, it apparently enhances CTP product feedback inhibition and GTP allosteric regulation. Further, CTP and GTP also enhance each other's effects, consistent with the idea that NADH, CTP, and GTP interact with a common intermediate enzyme state. A filament-blocking mutation that reduces CTP inhibitory effects also reduced inhibition by GTP but not NADH. Protein-concentration effects on GTP inhibition suggest that, like CTP, GTP preferentially binds to the filament. All three compounds display nearly linear dose-dependent inhibition, indicating a complex pattern of cooperative interactions between binding sites. The apparent synergy between inhibitors, in consideration with physiological nucleotide concentrations, points to metabolically relevant inhibition by nicotinamides, and implicates cellular redox state as a regulator of pyrimidine biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chris Habrian
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis , Davis, California 95616, United States.,Biophysics Graduate Program, University of California, Berkeley , Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Adithi Chandrasekhara
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis , Davis, California 95616, United States.,Process Development Rotation Program, Genentech Inc. , 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Bita Shahrvini
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis , Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Brian Hua
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis , Davis, California 95616, United States.,Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jason Lee
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis , Davis, California 95616, United States.,Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19129, United States.,Kaiser Permanente , Sacramento, California 95823, United States
| | - Roger Jesinghaus
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis , Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Rachael Barry
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University , Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92903, United States
| | - Zemer Gitai
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University , Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Justin Kollman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Enoch P Baldwin
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis , Davis, California 95616, United States
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Abstract
We review literature on the metabolism of ribo- and deoxyribonucleotides, nucleosides, and nucleobases in Escherichia coli and Salmonella,including biosynthesis, degradation, interconversion, and transport. Emphasis is placed on enzymology and regulation of the pathways, at both the level of gene expression and the control of enzyme activity. The paper begins with an overview of the reactions that form and break the N-glycosyl bond, which binds the nucleobase to the ribosyl moiety in nucleotides and nucleosides, and the enzymes involved in the interconversion of the different phosphorylated states of the nucleotides. Next, the de novo pathways for purine and pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis are discussed in detail.Finally, the conversion of nucleosides and nucleobases to nucleotides, i.e.,the salvage reactions, are described. The formation of deoxyribonucleotides is discussed, with emphasis on ribonucleotidereductase and pathways involved in fomation of dUMP. At the end, we discuss transport systems for nucleosides and nucleobases and also pathways for breakdown of the nucleobases.
Collapse
|
41
|
Mori G, Chiarelli LR, Esposito M, Makarov V, Bellinzoni M, Hartkoorn RC, Degiacomi G, Boldrin F, Ekins S, de Jesus Lopes Ribeiro AL, Marino LB, Centárová I, Svetlíková Z, Blaško J, Kazakova E, Lepioshkin A, Barilone N, Zanoni G, Porta A, Fondi M, Fani R, Baulard AR, Mikušová K, Alzari PM, Manganelli R, de Carvalho LPS, Riccardi G, Cole ST, Pasca MR. Thiophenecarboxamide Derivatives Activated by EthA Kill Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Inhibiting the CTP Synthetase PyrG. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:917-27. [PMID: 26097035 PMCID: PMC4521081 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2015.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
To combat the emergence of drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, new antitubercular agents and novel drug targets are needed. Phenotypic screening of a library of 594 hit compounds uncovered two leads that were active against M. tuberculosis in its replicating, non-replicating, and intracellular states: compounds 7947882 (5-methyl-N-(4-nitrophenyl)thiophene-2-carboxamide) and 7904688 (3-phenyl-N-[(4-piperidin-1-ylphenyl)carbamothioyl]propanamide). Mutants resistant to both compounds harbored mutations in ethA (rv3854c), the gene encoding the monooxygenase EthA, and/or in pyrG (rv1699) coding for the CTP synthetase, PyrG. Biochemical investigations demonstrated that EthA is responsible for the activation of the compounds, and by mass spectrometry we identified the active metabolite of 7947882, which directly inhibits PyrG activity. Metabolomic studies revealed that pharmacological inhibition of PyrG strongly perturbs DNA and RNA biosynthesis, and other metabolic processes requiring nucleotides. Finally, the crystal structure of PyrG was solved, paving the way for rational drug design with this newly validated drug target. Two compounds activated by EthA kill M. tuberculosis through PyrG inhibition EthA metabolite is active against PyrG and M. tuberculosis growth Definition of the mechanism of activation and validation of PyrG as a new drug target
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Mori
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Laurent R Chiarelli
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Marta Esposito
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Vadim Makarov
- A. N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Marco Bellinzoni
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Microbiologie Structurale, CNRS-UMR3528, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 25 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Ruben C Hartkoorn
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 19, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Giulia Degiacomi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Francesca Boldrin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Sean Ekins
- Collaborative Drug Discovery, 1633 Bayshore Highway, Suite 342, Burlingame, CA 94010, USA
| | | | - Leonardo B Marino
- Francis Crick Institute, Mill Hill Laboratory, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, UK; Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UNESP - Univ Estadual Paulista, Araraquara, São Paulo 14801-902, Brazil
| | - Ivana Centárová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Svetlíková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jaroslav Blaško
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina, 84215 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Elena Kazakova
- A. N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Lepioshkin
- A. N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Nathalie Barilone
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Microbiologie Structurale, CNRS-UMR3528, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 25 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Giuseppe Zanoni
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Alessio Porta
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Marco Fondi
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence 50019, Italy
| | - Renato Fani
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence 50019, Italy
| | - Alain R Baulard
- Institut Pasteur de Lille, Center for Infection and Immunity, 59019 Lille, France
| | - Katarína Mikušová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Pedro M Alzari
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Microbiologie Structurale, CNRS-UMR3528, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 25 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | | | | | - Giovanna Riccardi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Stewart T Cole
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 19, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Maria Rosalia Pasca
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Aughey GN, Grice SJ, Shen QJ, Xu Y, Chang CC, Azzam G, Wang PY, Freeman-Mills L, Pai LM, Sung LY, Yan J, Liu JL. Nucleotide synthesis is regulated by cytoophidium formation during neurodevelopment and adaptive metabolism. Biol Open 2014; 3:1045-56. [PMID: 25326513 PMCID: PMC4232762 DOI: 10.1242/bio.201410165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The essential metabolic enzyme CTP synthase (CTPsyn) can be compartmentalised to form an evolutionarily-conserved intracellular structure termed the cytoophidium. Recently, it has been demonstrated that the enzymatic activity of CTPsyn is attenuated by incorporation into cytoophidia in bacteria and yeast cells. Here we demonstrate that CTPsyn is regulated in a similar manner in Drosophila tissues in vivo. We show that cytoophidium formation occurs during nutrient deprivation in cultured cells, as well as in quiescent and starved neuroblasts of the Drosophila larval central nervous system. We also show that cytoophidia formation is reversible during neurogenesis, indicating that filament formation regulates pyrimidine synthesis in a normal developmental context. Furthermore, our global metabolic profiling demonstrates that CTPsyn overexpression does not significantly alter CTPsyn-related enzymatic activity, suggesting that cytoophidium formation facilitates metabolic stabilisation. In addition, we show that overexpression of CTPsyn only results in moderate increase of CTP pool in human stable cell lines. Together, our study provides experimental evidence, and a mathematical model, for the hypothesis that inactive CTPsyn is incorporated into cytoophidia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel N Aughey
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart J Grice
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Qing-Ji Shen
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Yichi Xu
- CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institutes of Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Chia-Chun Chang
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ghows Azzam
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Pei-Yu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan, 333, Taiwan, Republic of China Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Luke Freeman-Mills
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Li-Mei Pai
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan, 333, Taiwan, Republic of China Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Li-Ying Sung
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan, Republic of China Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jun Yan
- CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institutes of Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Ji-Long Liu
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Calise SJ, Carcamo WC, Krueger C, Yin JD, Purich DL, Chan EKL. Glutamine deprivation initiates reversible assembly of mammalian rods and rings. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:2963-73. [PMID: 24477477 PMCID: PMC11113311 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1567-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 12/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Rods and rings (RR) are protein assemblies composed of cytidine triphosphate synthetase type 1 (CTPS1) and inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase type 2 (IMPDH2), key enzymes in CTP and GTP biosynthesis. Small-molecule inhibitors of CTPS1 or IMPDH2 induce RR assembly in various cancer cell lines within 15 min to hours. Since glutamine is an essential amide nitrogen donor in these nucleotide biosynthetic pathways, glutamine deprivation was examined to determine whether it leads to RR formation. HeLa cells cultured in normal conditions did not show RR, but after culturing in media lacking glutamine, short rods (<2 μm) assembled after 24 h, and longer rods (>5 μm) formed after 48 h. Upon supplementation with glutamine or guanosine, these RR underwent almost complete disassembly within 15 min. Inhibition of glutamine synthetase with methionine sulfoximine also increased RR assembly in cells deprived of glutamine. Taken together, our data support the hypothesis that CTP/GTP biosynthetic enzymes polymerize to form RR in response to a decreased intracellular level of glutamine. We speculate that rod and ring formation is an adaptive metabolic response linked to disruption of glutamine homeostasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S. John Calise
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, 1395 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424 USA
| | - Wendy C. Carcamo
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, 1395 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424 USA
| | - Claire Krueger
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, 1395 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424 USA
| | - Joyce D. Yin
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, 1395 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424 USA
| | - Daniel L. Purich
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, 1600 SW Archer Rd., Gainesville, FL 32610-0245 USA
| | - Edward K. L. Chan
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, 1395 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424 USA
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Barry RM, Bitbol AF, Lorestani A, Charles EJ, Habrian CH, Hansen JM, Li HJ, Baldwin EP, Wingreen NS, Kollman JM, Gitai Z. Large-scale filament formation inhibits the activity of CTP synthetase. eLife 2014; 3:e03638. [PMID: 25030911 PMCID: PMC4126345 DOI: 10.7554/elife.03638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
CTP Synthetase (CtpS) is a universally conserved and essential metabolic enzyme. While many enzymes form small oligomers, CtpS forms large-scale filamentous structures of unknown function in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. By simultaneously monitoring CtpS polymerization and enzymatic activity, we show that polymerization inhibits activity, and CtpS's product, CTP, induces assembly. To understand how assembly inhibits activity, we used electron microscopy to define the structure of CtpS polymers. This structure suggests that polymerization sterically hinders a conformational change necessary for CtpS activity. Structure-guided mutagenesis and mathematical modeling further indicate that coupling activity to polymerization promotes cooperative catalytic regulation. This previously uncharacterized regulatory mechanism is important for cellular function since a mutant that disrupts CtpS polymerization disrupts E. coli growth and metabolic regulation without reducing CTP levels. We propose that regulation by large-scale polymerization enables ultrasensitive control of enzymatic activity while storing an enzyme subpopulation in a conformationally restricted form that is readily activatable. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03638.001 Enzymes are proteins that perform reactions that can convert one or more chemicals (the substrates) into others (the products). The rate at which an enzyme produces its product is often carefully regulated. Some molecules slow or stop an enzyme by binding to and blocking the site where its substrates normally bind: its ‘active site’. Other molecules can also bind to sites other than the active site, which can cause the enzyme to become either more or less active. Almost all living things have an enzyme called CTP synthetase that makes one of the building blocks that is used to build DNA and a similar molecule called RNA. This enzyme converts a molecule called uridine triphosphate (or UTP) into another called cytidine triphosphate (CTP): a reaction that is powered by breaking down molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The amount of CTP synthetase made by a cell is carefully controlled. The enzyme's activity is also regulated by the levels of UTP and CTP, and by another molecule (called GTP) that binds to a site outside of its active site. Four copies of the CTP synthetase protein must work together before this enzyme can turn UTP into CTP. The enzyme also forms much larger aggregates, or polymers; however, it is not clear what causes these polymers to form, or what they do in a cell. Barry et al. have now discovered that CTP synthetase is almost completely inactivated when these polymers are formed. Furthermore, CTP encourages the polymers to form, whilst UTP and ATP cause them to disassemble. Therefore, this enzyme is least active when there is excess product in the cell, and most active when its substrates are plentiful. By determining the three-dimensional structure of a CTP synthetase polymer, Barry et al. reveal that although CTP is bound to the enzymes, their active sites are still freely accessible. However, the enzymes in the polymer appear to be locked into a shape that makes them unable to carry out their function. When Barry et al. then mutated the enzyme so that it was unable to form polymers it was also no longer inactivated in the same way by CTP. Bacterial cells with only these mutant versions of CTP synthetase are unable to properly control their levels of CTP. This suggests that polymer formation is important for regulating this enzyme in response to a build up of its product. Further work is needed to see whether the regulation of CTP synthetase activity by forming polymers is specific to this enzyme or a widespread mechanism that is used to control other enzymes too. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03638.002
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachael M Barry
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| | - Anne-Florence Bitbol
- Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| | - Alexander Lorestani
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| | - Emeric J Charles
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Chris H Habrian
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, United States
| | - Jesse M Hansen
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Hsin-Jung Li
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| | - Enoch P Baldwin
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, United States
| | - Ned S Wingreen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, United States Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| | - Justin M Kollman
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada Groupe de Recherche Axé sur la Structure des Protéines, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Zemer Gitai
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Noree C, Monfort E, Shiau AK, Wilhelm JE. Common regulatory control of CTP synthase enzyme activity and filament formation. Mol Biol Cell 2014; 25:2282-90. [PMID: 24920825 PMCID: PMC4116302 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e14-04-0912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
CTP synthase is one of many enzymes that form novel intracellular filaments/structures. A
structure–function approach is used to show that the same regulatory sites that control CTP
synthase enzyme activity also control filament formation. Close coupling of assembly to enzyme
regulation is proposed to be a general feature of these structures. The ability of enzymes to assemble into visible supramolecular complexes is a widespread
phenomenon. Such complexes have been hypothesized to play a number of roles; however, little is
known about how the regulation of enzyme activity is coupled to the assembly/disassembly of these
cellular structures. CTP synthase is an ideal model system for addressing this question because its
activity is regulated via multiple mechanisms and its filament-forming ability is evolutionarily
conserved. Our structure–function studies of CTP synthase in Saccharomyces
cerevisiae reveal that destabilization of the active tetrameric form of the enzyme
increases filament formation, suggesting that the filaments comprise inactive CTP synthase dimers.
Furthermore, the sites responsible for feedback inhibition and allosteric activation control
filament length, implying that multiple regions of the enzyme can influence filament structure. In
contrast, blocking catalysis without disrupting the regulatory sites of the enzyme does not affect
filament formation or length. Together our results argue that the regulatory sites that control CTP
synthase function, but not enzymatic activity per se, are critical for controlling filament
assembly. We predict that the ability of enzymes to form supramolecular structures in general is
closely coupled to the mechanisms that regulate their activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chalongrat Noree
- Section on Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Elena Monfort
- Section on Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Andrew K Shiau
- Small Molecule Discovery Program, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - James E Wilhelm
- Section on Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Zhu M, Sun W, Wang Y, Meng J, Zhang D, Guo T, Ouyang P, Ying H, Xie J. Engineered cytidine triphosphate synthetase with reduced product inhibition. Protein Eng Des Sel 2014; 27:225-33. [PMID: 24902851 DOI: 10.1093/protein/gzu019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytidine triphosphate (CTP) synthetase (CTPS) (EC number 6.3.4.2) is a key enzyme involved in de novo synthesis of CTP. It catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the process due to the product inhibition effects on the enzyme. In this study, a novel CTPS from Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 (CgCTPS) was cloned, expressed and characterized. A series of mutagenesis in its N-terminal ammonia ligase (ALase) domain was performed in order to reduce CTP product inhibition. All single mutation variants (D160E, E162A, E168K) lowered product inhibition by lowering the enzyme's binding affinity for CTP. The homology model of CgCTPS showed that D160E mutant caused steric hindrance for the pyrimidine ring of CTP stacking, E162A disrupted the hydrogen bond between CTP ribose and side chain and D168K caused minor localized structure perturbations of CTP binding pocket. The triple mutant of CTPS (D160E-E162A-E168K) with halved Km, doubled Vmax and the 23.5-fold increased IC50 for CTP shows a potential for use in industrial-scale CTP production by its better performance in enzyme kinetics and product inhibition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengzhu Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China National Engineering Technique Research Center for Biotechnology, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Wujin Sun
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh 27695, USA
| | - Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China National Engineering Technique Research Center for Biotechnology, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China National Engineering Technique Research Center for Biotechnology, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Dalu Zhang
- International Cooperation Division, China National Center for Biotechnology Development, Beijing 100036, People's Republic of China
| | - Ting Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China National Engineering Technique Research Center for Biotechnology, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China Guangzhou Sugarcane Industry Research Institute, Guangzhou 510316, People's Republic of China
| | - Pingkai Ouyang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China National Engineering Technique Research Center for Biotechnology, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Hanjie Ying
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China National Engineering Technique Research Center for Biotechnology, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Jingjing Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China National Engineering Technique Research Center for Biotechnology, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China Present address: College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, South Puzhu Road 30, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Affiliation(s)
- Artur Gora
- Loschmidt Laboratories,
Department
of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in
the Environment, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/A13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Brezovsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories,
Department
of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in
the Environment, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/A13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories,
Department
of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in
the Environment, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/A13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- International Centre for Clinical
Research, St. Anne’s University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Azzam G, Liu JL. Only one isoform of Drosophila melanogaster CTP synthase forms the cytoophidium. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003256. [PMID: 23459760 PMCID: PMC3573105 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
CTP synthase is an essential enzyme that plays a key role in energy metabolism. Several independent studies have demonstrated that CTP synthase can form an evolutionarily conserved subcellular structure termed cytoophidium. In budding yeast, there are two isoforms of CTP synthase and both isoforms localize in cytoophidium. However, little is known about the distribution of CTP synthase isoforms in Drosophila melanogaster. Here, we report that three transcripts generated at the CTP synthase gene locus exhibit different expression profiles, and three isoforms encoded by this gene locus show a distinct subcellular distribution. While isoform A localizes in the nucleus, isoform B distributes diffusely in the cytoplasm, and only isoform C forms the cytoophidium. In the two isoform C-specific mutants, cytoophidia disappear in the germline cells. Although isoform A does not localize to the cytoophidium, a mutation disrupting mostly isoform A expression results in the disassembly of cytoophidia. Overexpression of isoform C can induce the growth of the cytoophidium in a cell-autonomous manner. Ectopic expression of the cytoophidium-forming isoform does not cause any defect in the embryos. In addition, we identify that a small segment at the amino terminus of isoform C is necessary but not sufficient for cytoophidium formation. Finally, we demonstrate that an excess of the synthetase domain of CTP synthase disrupts cytoophidium formation. Thus, the study of multiple isoforms of CTP synthase in Drosophila provides a good opportunity to dissect the biogenesis and function of the cytoophidum in a genetically tractable organism. DNA and RNA are made up from basic building blocks called nucleotides. Those nucleotides also play essential roles in many other biological processes. To separate biological processes within a cell is an important feature of all cell types. For example, mitochondria are specialized structures that contain ATP synthase, the enzyme that makes the nucleotide ATP. While mitochondria and ATP synthase have been studied for about 100 years, it was only very recently that we realized that there are specialized subcellular structures that contain CTP synthase, the enzyme that makes up another basic nucleotide CTP. Several independent studies have shown that CTP synthase molecules can form a filamentous structure called the cytoophidium (meaning “cellular snake” in Greek) or CTP synthase filament in bacteria, budding yeasts, fruit flies, and rat and human cells. In budding yeast, there are two isoforms of CTP synthase and both isoforms localize in the cytoophidium. Here, we report that three CTP synthase isoforms in fruit flies show a distinct subcellular distribution and only one isoform forms the cytoophidium. Thus, the study of multiple isoforms of CTP synthase in the fruit fly gives us a good way to begin to learn how and why CTP synthase molecules form this snake-like structure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ghows Azzam
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ji-Long Liu
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Yoshida T, Nasu H, Namba E, Ubukata O, Yamashita M. Discovery of a compound that acts as a bacterial PyrG (CTP synthase) inhibitor. J Med Microbiol 2012; 61:1280-1285. [PMID: 22700553 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.046052-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PyrG (CTP synthase) catalyses the conversion of UTP to CTP, an essential step in the pyrimidine metabolic pathway in a variety of bacteria, including those causing community-acquired respiratory tract infections (RTIs). In this study, a luminescence-based ATPase assay of PyrG was developed and used to evaluate the inhibitory activity of 2-(3-[3-oxo-1,2-benzisothiazol-2(3H)-yl]phenylsulfonylamino) benzoic acid (compound G1). Compound G1 inhibited PyrG derived from Streptococcus pneumoniae with a 50 % inhibitory concentration value of 0.091 µM, and the inhibitory activity of compound G1 was 13 times higher than that of acivicin (1.2 µM), an established PyrG inhibitor. The results of saturation transfer difference analysis using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy suggested that these compounds compete with ATP and/or UTP for binding to Strep. pneumoniae PyrG. Finally, compound G1 was shown to have antimicrobial activity against several different bacteria causing RTIs, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae, suggesting that it is a prototype chemical compound that could be harnessed as an antimicrobial drug with a novel structure to target bacterial PyrG.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuhiko Yoshida
- Biological Research Laboratories IV, Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd, 1-16-13 Kitakasai, Edogawa-ku, Tokyo 134-8630, Japan
| | - Hatsumi Nasu
- Biological Research Laboratories IV, Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd, 1-16-13 Kitakasai, Edogawa-ku, Tokyo 134-8630, Japan
| | - Eiko Namba
- Biological Research Laboratories IV, Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd, 1-16-13 Kitakasai, Edogawa-ku, Tokyo 134-8630, Japan
| | - Osamu Ubukata
- Core Technology Research Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd, 1-2-58 Hiromachi, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 140-8710, Japan
| | - Makoto Yamashita
- Biological Research Laboratories IV, Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd, 1-16-13 Kitakasai, Edogawa-ku, Tokyo 134-8630, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Chen K, Zhang J, Tastan ÖY, Deussen ZA, Siswick MYY, Liu JL. Glutamine analogs promote cytoophidium assembly in human and Drosophila cells. J Genet Genomics 2011; 38:391-402. [PMID: 21930098 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgg.2011.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 08/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
CTP synthase is compartmentalized within a subcellular structure, termed the cytoophidium, in a range of organisms including bacteria, yeast, fruit fly and rat. Here we show that CTP synthase is also compartmentalized into cytoophidia in human cells. Surprisingly, the occurrence of cytoophidia in human cells increases upon treatment with a glutamine analog 6-diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine (DON), an inhibitor of glutamine-dependent enzymes including CTP synthase. Experiments in flies confirmed that DON globally promotes cytoophidium assembly. Clonal analysis via CTP synthase RNA interference in somatic cells indicates that CTP synthase expression level is critical for the formation of cytoophidia. Moreover, DON facilitates cytoophidium assembly even when CTP synthase level is low. A second glutamine analog azaserine also promotes cytoophidum formation. Our data demonstrate that glutamine analogs serve as useful tools in the study of cytoophidia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kangni Chen
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|