The N-terminal domain of Bcl-xL reversibly binds membranes in a pH-dependent manner

Lipid-modulation of membrane insertion and refolding of the apoptotic inhibitor Bcl-xL

Bcl-xL is a member of the Bcl-2 family of apoptotic regulators, responsible for inhibiting the permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane, and a promising anti-cancer target. Bcl-xL exists in the following conformations, each believed to play a role in the inhibition of apoptosis: (a) a soluble folded conformation, (b) a membrane-anchored (by its C-terminal α8 helix) form, which retains the same fold as in solution and (c) refolded membrane-inserted conformations, for which no structural data are available. Previous studies established that in the cell Bcl-xL exists in a dynamic equilibrium between soluble and membranous states, however, no direct evidence exists in support of either anchored or inserted conformation of the membranous state in vivo. In this in vitro study, we employed a combination of fluorescence and EPR spectroscopy to characterize structural features of the bilayer-inserted conformation of Bcl-xL and the lipid modulation of its membrane insertion transition. Our results indicate that the core hydrophobic helix α6 inserts into the bilayer without adopting a transmembrane orientation. This insertion disrupts the packing of Bcl-xL and releases the regulatory N-terminal BH4 domain (α1) from the rest of the protein structure. Our data demonstrate that both insertion and refolding of Bcl-xL are modulated by lipid composition, which brings the apparent pK_a of insertion to the threshold of physiological pH. We hypothesize that conformational rearrangements associated with the bilayer insertion of Bcl-xL result in its switching to a so-called non-canonical mode of apoptotic inhibition. Presented results suggest that the alteration in lipid composition before and during apoptosis can serve as an additional factor regulating the permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane.

Bcl-xL deamidation is regulated by multiple ion transporters and is intramolecularly catalyzed

In susceptible tumor cells, DNA-damaging antineoplastic agents induce an increase in intracellular pH during the premitochondrial stage of apoptosis. The rate of nonenzymatic deamidation of two asparagines in the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-x_L is accelerated by this increase in pH. Deamidation of these asparagines is a signal for the degradation of Bcl-x_L, which is a component of the apoptotic response to DNA damage. It has previously been shown that the increase in pH is mediated by the ion transporter Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 1 in some cells. Here we demonstrate that one or more additional ion transporters also have a role in the regulation of Bcl-x_L deamidation in at least some tumor cell lines and fibroblasts. As a second, independent finding, we report that there are histidines in close proximity to the Bcl-x_L deamidation sites that are highly conserved in land-dwelling species and we present evidence that deamidation of human Bcl-x_L is intramolecularly catalyzed in a manner that is dependent upon these histidines. Further, we present evidence that these histidines act as a pH-sensitive switch that enhances the effect of the increase in pH on the rate of Bcl-x_L deamidation. The conservation of such histidines implies that human Bcl-x_L is in essence "designed" to be deamidated, which provides further evidence that deamidation serves as a bona fide regulatory post-translational modification of Bcl-x_L.

The pH-Dependent Trigger in Diphtheria Toxin T Domain Comes with a Safety Latch

Protein-side-chain protonation, coupled to conformational rearrangements, is one way of regulating physiological function caused by changes in protein environment. Specifically, protonation of histidine residues has been implicated in pH-dependent conformational switching in several systems, including the diphtheria toxin translocation (T) domain, which is responsible for the toxin's cellular entry via the endosomal pathway. Our previous studies a) identified protonation of H257 as a major component of the T domain's conformational switch and b) suggested the possibility of a neighboring H223 acting as a modulator, affecting the protonation of H257 and preventing premature conformational changes outside the endosome. To verify this "safety-latch" hypothesis, we report here the pH-dependent folding and membrane interactions of the T domain of the wild-type and that of the H223Q mutant, which lacks the latch. Thermal unfolding of the T domain, measured by circular dichroism, revealed that the reduction in the transition temperature for helical unfolding for an H223Q mutant starts at less acidic conditions (pH <7.5) relative to the wild-type protein (pH <6.5). Hydrogen-deuterium-exchange mass spectrometry demonstrates that the H223Q replacement results in a loss of stability of the amphipathic helices TH1-3 and the hydrophobic core helix TH8 at pH 6.5. That this destabilization occurs in solution correlates well with the pH-range shift for the onset of the membrane permeabilization and translocation activity of the T domain, confirming our initial hypothesis that H223 protonation guards against early refolding. Taken together, these results demonstrate that histidine protonation can fine-tune pH-dependent switching in physiologically relevant systems.

Type 3 Secretion Translocators Spontaneously Assemble a Hexadecameric Transmembrane Complex

A type 3 secretion system is used by many bacterial pathogens to inject proteins into eukaryotic cells. Pathogens insert a translocon complex into the target eukaryotic membrane by secreting two proteins known as translocators. How these translocators form a translocon in the lipid bilayer and why both proteins are required remains elusive. Pseudomonas aeruginosa translocators PopB and PopD insert pores into membranes forming homo- or hetero-complexes of undetermined stoichiometry. Single-molecule fluorescence photobleaching experiments revealed that PopD formed mostly hexameric structures in membranes, whereas PopB displayed a bi-modal distribution with 6 and 12 subunits peaks. However, individually the proteins are not functional for effector translocation. We have found that when added together, the translocators formed distinct hetero-complexes containing 8 PopB and 8 PopD molecules. Thus, the interaction between PopB and PopD guide the assembly of a unique hetero-oligomer in membranes.

Membrane lipid compositional sensing by the inducible amphipathic helix of CCT

The amphipathic helical (AH) membrane binding motif is recognized as a major device for lipid compositional sensing. We explore the function and mechanism of sensing by the lipid biosynthetic enzyme, CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT). As the regulatory enzyme in phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis, CCT contributes to membrane PC homeostasis. CCT directly binds and inserts into the surface of bilayers that are deficient in PC and therefore enriched in lipids that enhance surface charge and/or create lipid packing voids. These two membrane physical properties induce the folding of the CCT M domain into a ≥60 residue AH. Membrane binding activates catalysis by a mechanism that has been partially deciphered. We review the evidence for CCT compositional sensing, and the membrane and protein determinants for lipid selective membrane-interactions. We consider the factors that promote the binding of CCT isoforms to the membranes of the ER, nuclear envelope, or lipid droplets, but exclude CCT from other organelles and the plasma membrane. The CCT sensing mechanism is compared with several other proteins that use an AH motif for membrane compositional sensing. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The cellular lipid landscape edited by Tim P. Levine and Anant K. Menon.

Comparison of membrane insertion pathways of the apoptotic regulator Bcl-xL and the diphtheria toxin translocation domain

The diphtheria toxin translocation domain (T-domain) and the apoptotic repressor Bcl-xL are membrane proteins that adopt their final topology by switching folds from a water-soluble to a membrane-inserted state. While the exact molecular mechanisms of this transition are not clearly understood in either case, the similarity in the structures of soluble states of the T-domain and Bcl-xL led to the suggestion that their membrane insertion pathways will be similar, as well. Previously, we have applied an array of spectroscopic methods to characterize the pH-triggered refolding and membrane insertion of the diphtheria toxin T-domain. Here, we use the same set of methods to describe the membrane insertion pathway of Bcl-xL, which allows us to make a direct comparison between both systems with respect to the thermodynamic stability in solution, pH-dependent membrane association, and transmembrane insertion. Thermal denaturation measured by circular dichroism indicates that, unlike the T-domain, Bcl-xL does not undergo a pH-dependent destabilization of the structure. Förster resonance energy transfer measurements demonstrate that Bcl-xL undergoes reversible membrane association modulated by the presence of anionic lipids, suggesting that formation of the membrane-competent form occurs close to the membrane interface. Membrane insertion of the main hydrophobic helical hairpin of Bcl-xL, α5-α6, was studied by site-selective attachment of environment-sensitive dye NBD. In contrast to the insertion of the corresponding TH8-TH9 hairpin into the T-domain, insertion of α5-α6 was found not to depend strongly on the presence of anionic lipids. Taken together, our results indicate that while Bcl-xL and the T-domain share structural similarities, their modes of conformational switching and membrane insertion pathways are distinctly different.

The dynamics of Bax channel formation: influence of ionic strength

Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) is a complex multistep process. Studies of MOMP in vivo are limited by the stochastic variability of MOMP between cells and rapid completion of IMS protein release within single cells. In vitro models have provided useful insights into MOMP. We have investigated the dynamics of Bax-mediated MOMP in isolated mitochondria using ionic strength as a tool to control the rate of MOMP. We find that Bax can induce both transient permeabilization, detected by protein release, and more substantial long-lasting permeabilization, measured by the rate of oxidation of added cytochrome c. We found that higher ionic strength causes Bax to form small channels quickly but the expansion of these early channels is impeded. This inhibitory effect of ionic strength is independent of tBid. Channels formed under low ionic strength are not destabilized by raising the ionic strength. Increase in ionic strength also increases the ability of Bcl-xL to inhibit Bax-mediated MOMP. Ionic strength does not affect Bax insertion into mitochondria. Thus, ionic strength influences the assembly of Bax molecules already in membrane into channels. Ionic strength can be used as an effective biophysical tool to study Bax-mediated channel formation.

The N-terminal helix of Bcl-xL targets mitochondria

Anti- and pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members regulate the mitochondrial phase of apoptotic cell death. The mitochondrial targeting mechanisms of Bcl-2 family proteins are tightly regulated. Known outer mitochondrial membrane targeting sequences include the C-terminal tail and central helical hairpin. Bcl-xL also localizes to the inner mitochondrial membrane, but these targeting sequences are unknown. Here we investigate the possibility that the N-terminus of Bcl-xL also contains mitochondrial targeting information. Amino acid residues 1-28 of Bcl-xL fused to EGFP are sufficient to target mitochondria. Although positive charges and helical propensity are required for targeting, similar to import sequences the N-terminus is not sufficient for efficient mitochondrial import.

Acidic pH promotes oligomerization and membrane insertion of the BclXL apoptotic repressor

Solution pH is believed to serve as an intricate regulatory switch in the induction of apoptosis central to embryonic development and cellular homeostasis. Herein, using an array of biophysical techniques, we provide evidence that acidic pH promotes the assembly of BclXL apoptotic repressor into a megadalton oligomer with a plume-like appearance and harboring structural features characteristic of a molten globule. Strikingly, our data reveal that pH tightly modulates not only oligomerization but also ligand binding and membrane insertion of BclXL in a highly subtle manner. Thus, while oligomerization and the accompanying molten globular content of BclXL is least favorable at pH 6, both of these structural features become more pronounced under acidic and alkaline conditions. However, membrane insertion of BclXL appears to be predominantly favored under acidic conditions. In a remarkable contrast, while ligand binding to BclXL optimally occurs at pH 6, it is diminished by an order of magnitude at lower and higher pH. This reciprocal relationship between BclXL oligomerization and ligand binding lends new insights into how pH modulates functional versatility of a key apoptotic regulator and strongly argues that the molten globule may serve as an intermediate primed for membrane insertion in response to apoptotic cues.

Ligand binding and membrane insertion compete with oligomerization of the BclXL apoptotic repressor

B-cell lymphoma extra large (BclXL) apoptotic repressor plays a central role in determining the fate of cells to live or die during physiological processes such as embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. Herein, using a myriad of biophysical techniques, we provide evidence that ligand binding and membrane insertion compete with oligomerization of BclXL in solution. Of particular importance is the observation that such oligomerization is driven by the intermolecular binding of its C-terminal transmembrane (TM) domain to the canonical hydrophobic groove in a domain-swapped trans fashion, whereby the TM domain of one monomer occupies the canonical hydrophobic groove within the other monomer and vice versa. Binding of BH3 ligands to the canonical hydrophobic groove displaces the TM domain in a competitive manner, allowing BclXL to dissociate into monomers upon hetero-association. Remarkably, spontaneous insertion of BclXL into DMPC/DHPC (1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine/1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) bicelles results in a dramatic conformational change such that it can no longer recognize the BH3 ligands in what has come to be known as the "hit-and-run" mechanism. Collectively, our data suggest that oligomerization of a key apoptotic repressor serves as an allosteric switch that fine-tunes its ligand binding and membrane insertion pertinent to the regulation of apoptotic machinery.

Efficient isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa type III secretion translocators and assembly of heteromeric transmembrane pores in model membranes

Translocation of bacterial toxins or effectors into host cells using the type III secretion (T3S) system is a conserved mechanism shared by many Gram-negative pathogens. Pseudomonas aeruginosa injects different proteins across the plasma membrane of target cells, altering the normal metabolism of the host. Protein translocation presumably occurs through a proteinaceous transmembrane pore formed by two T3S secreted protein translocators, PopB and PopD. Unfolded translocators are secreted through the T3S needle prior to insertion into the target membrane. Purified PopB and PopD form pores in model membranes. However, their tendency to form heterogeneous aggregates in solution had hampered the analysis of how these proteins undergo the transition from a denatured state to a membrane-inserted state. Translocators were purified as stable complexes with the cognate chaperone PcrH and isolated from the chaperone using 6 M urea. We report here the assembly of stable transmembrane pores by dilution of urea-denatured translocators in the presence of membranes. PopB and PopD spontaneously bound liposomes containing anionic phospholipids and cholesterol in a pH-dependent manner as observed by two independent assays, time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer and sucrose-step gradient ultracentrifugation. Using Bodipy-labeled proteins, we found that PopB interacts with PopD on the membrane surface as determined by excitation energy migration and fluorescence quenching. Stable transmembrane pores are more efficiently assembled at pH <5.0, suggesting that acidic residues might be involved in the initial membrane binding and/or insertion. Altogether, the experimental setup described here represents an efficient method for the reconstitution and analysis of membrane-inserted translocators.

Protein oligomerization mediated by the transmembrane carboxyl terminal domain of Bcl-XL

Bcl-XL is a pro-survival member of the Bcl-2 family that can be found in the outer mitochondrial membrane and in soluble cytosolic homodimers. Bcl-XL can bind pro-apoptotic members of this family preventing them from activating the execution phase of apoptosis. Bcl-XL has been shown to homodimerize in different ways, although most binding and structural assays have been carried out in the absence of its carboxyl terminal transmembrane domain. We show here that this domain can by itself direct protein oligomerization, which could be related to its previously reported role in mitochondrial morphology alterations and apoptosis inhibition.

Structured summary of protein interactions

Vamp2 physically interacts with Vamp2 by blue native page (View interaction)

Vamp2 physically interacts with Vamp2 by cross-linking study (View interaction)

Bcl-Xl physically interacts with Bcl-Xl by blue native page (View interaction)

Bcl-Xl physically interacts with Bcl-Xl by cross-linking study (View interaction)

The cytosolic domain of Fis1 binds and reversibly clusters lipid vesicles

Every lipid membrane fission event involves the association of two apposing bilayers, mediated by proteins that can promote membrane curvature, fusion and fission. We tested the hypothesis that Fis1, a tail-anchored protein involved in mitochondrial and peroxisomal fission, promotes changes in membrane structure. We found that the cytosolic domain of Fis1 alone binds lipid vesicles, which is enhanced upon protonation and increasing concentrations of anionic phospholipids. Fluorescence and circular dichroism data indicate that the cytosolic domain undergoes a membrane-induced conformational change that buries two tryptophan side chains upon membrane binding. Light scattering and electron microscopy data show that membrane binding promotes lipid vesicle clustering. Remarkably, this vesicle clustering is reversible and vesicles largely retain their original shape and size. This raises the possibility that the Fis1 cytosolic domain might act in membrane fission by promoting a reversible membrane association, a necessary step in membrane fission.

The C. elegans B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) homolog cell death abnormal 9 (CED-9) associates with and remodels LIPID membranes

Bcl-2 proteins associate with and remodel mitochondria to regulate apoptosis. While the C. elegans Bcl-2 homolog CED-9 constitutively associates with mitochondria, it is unclear whether or not this association reflects an innate ability of CED-9 to directly remodel mitochondrial membranes. To address this question, we have characterized the effects of recombinantly expressed and purified CED-9 on synthetic lipid vesicles. We found that CED-9 associates with anionic lipid vesicles at neutral pH, and that association can occur independently of the C-terminal transmembrane domain. Membrane association changes the environment of CED-9 tryptophans and results in an apparent increase in α-helical structure. Upon association, CED-9 alters the permeability of membranes resulting in leakage of encapsulated dyes. Furthermore, this membrane remodeling promotes membrane fusion upon protonation of CED-9. Bypass of this protonation trigger can be achieved by mutating two conserved glutamates (E187K/E190K) or removing the N-terminal 67 residues. Together, these in vitro results suggest that CED-9 retains the amphitropic ability of mammalian Bcl-2 proteins to associate with cellular membranes. We therefore discuss the possibility that CED-9 and other Bcl-2 homologs localize at mitochondria to regulate mitochondrial homeostasis by either modulating mitochondrial membrane permeability or fusion.

Membrane promotes tBID interaction with BCL(XL)

Two important questions on the molecular mechanism of the B cell CLL/lymphoma 2 (BCL2) proteins involve the interaction network between pro- and antiapoptotic members and the role of their translocation to the mitochondrial membrane during apoptosis. We used fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to quantify the molecular interactions of BH3-interacting domain death agonist (BID) and its truncated form tBID with the B cell lymphoma extra-large protein truncated at the C terminus (BCL(XL)DeltaCt) in solution and in membranes, and we found that (i) only the active form tBID binds to BCL(XL)DeltaCt and (ii) that the membrane strongly promotes binding between them. Particularly, a BH3 peptide from BID disrupts the tBID-BCL(XL) complex in solution, but only partially in lipid bilayers. These data indicate that tBID-BCL(XL) interactions in solution and lipid membranes are distinct, and they support a model in which BCL(XL) inhibition of tBID takes place predominantly at the membrane. Our findings imply an active role of the membrane in modulating the interactions between BCL2 proteins that has so far been underestimated.

Structure assembly of Bcl-x(L) through alpha5-alpha5 and alpha6-alpha6 interhelix interactions in lipid membranes

Lipid bilayer membrane is the main site where Bcl-x(L) executes its anti-apoptotic function. Here we used site-directed mutagenesis and cysteine-directed cross-linking to trap the structure of Bcl-x(L) upon membrane insertion. Cys151 on alpha5-helix and Asn185 on alpha6-helix of two neighboring Bcl-x(L) are found in close positions, respectively. The FRET based binding assay indicated that the BH3-peptide binding pocket in Bcl-x(L) is disrupted after its membrane insertion. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments showed that the membrane-bound Bcl-x(L) sequestered tBid by direct interaction at physiological pH. If Bcl-x(L) behaves similarly at low pH as it does at physiological pH, the membrane-bound Bcl-x(L) should bind to tBid through protein regions other than the BH3 domain of tBid and the hydrophobic pocket of Bcl-x(L). Previously, a crystallography study demonstrated that Bcl-x(L) formed homodimers through domain swapping in water, where Cys151 and Asn185 of two monomeric subunits are far apart from each other and the BH3-peptide binding pocket is intact. Our results indicated that Bcl-x(L) dimer trapped by cross-linking in lipids is distinct from the domain swapped dimer, suggesting that Bcl-x(L) transits through a structural change from the water-soluble state to the membrane-bound state and there are multiple possibilities for structural reorganization of Bcl-x(L) protein.

Structural dynamics of soluble chloride intracellular channel protein CLIC1 examined by amide hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry

Chloride intracellular channel protein 1 (CLIC1) functions as an anion channel in plasma and nuclear membranes when its soluble monomeric form converts to an integral-membrane form. The transmembrane region of CLIC1 is located in its thioredoxin-like domain 1, but the mechanism whereby the protein converts to its membrane conformation has yet to be determined. Since channel formation in membranes is enhanced at low pH (5 to 5.5), a condition that is found at the surface of membranes, the structural dynamics of soluble CLIC1 was studied at pH 7 and at pH 5.5 in the absence of membranes by amide hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (DXMS). Rapid hydrogen exchange data indicate that CLIC1 displays a similar core structure at these pH values. Domain 1 is less stable than the all-helical domain 2, and, while the structure of domain 1 remains intact, its conformational flexibility is further increased in an acidic environment (pH 5.5). In the absence of membrane, an acidic environment appears to prime the solution structure of CLIC1 by destabilizing domain 1 in order to lower the activation energy barrier for its conversion to the membrane-insertion conformation. The significantly enhanced H/D-exchange rates at pH 5.5 displayed by two segments (peptides 11-31 and 68-82) could be due to the protonation of acidic residues in salt bridges. One of these segments (peptide 11-31) includes part of the transmembrane region which, in the solution structure, consists of helix alpha1. This helix is intrinsically stable and is most likely retained in the membrane conformation. Strand beta2, another element of the transmembrane region, displays a propensity to form a helical structure and has putative N- and C-capping motifs, suggesting that it too most likely forms a helix in a lipid bilayer.

The annexins: spatial and temporal coordination of signaling events during cellular stress

Annexins are a family of structurally related, Ca2+-sensitive proteins that bind to negatively charged phospholipids and establish specific interactions with other lipids and lipid microdomains. They are present in all eukaryotic cells and share a common folding motif, the "annexin core", which incorporates Ca2+- and membrane-binding sites. Annexins participate in a variety of intracellular processes, ranging from the regulation of membrane dynamics to cell migration, proliferation, and apoptosis. Here we focus on the role of annexins in cellular signaling during stress. A chronic stress response triggers the activation of different intracellular pathways, resulting in profound changes in Ca2+ and pH homeostasis and the production of lipid second messengers. We review the latest data on how these changes are sensed by the annexins, which have the ability to simultaneously interact with specific lipid and protein moieties at the plasma membrane, contributing to stress adaptation via regulation of various signaling pathways.

Membrane permeabilization by trypanosome lytic factor, a cytolytic human high density lipoprotein

Trypanosome lytic factor (TLF) is a subclass of human high density lipoprotein (HDL) that mediates an innate immune killing of certain mammalian trypanosomes, most notably Trypanosoma brucei brucei, the causative agent of a wasting disease in cattle. Mechanistically, killing is initiated in the lysosome of the target trypanosome where the acidic pH facilitates a membrane-disrupting activity by TLF. Here we utilize a model liposome system to characterize the membrane binding and permeabilizing activity of TLF and its protein constituents, haptoglobin-related protein (Hpr), apolipoprotein L-1 (apoL-1), and apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1). We show that TLF efficiently binds and permeabilizes unilamellar liposomes at lysosomal pH, whereas non-lytic human HDL exhibits inefficient permeabilizing activity. Purified, delipidated Hpr and apoL-1 both efficiently permeabilize lipid bilayers at low pH. Trypanosome lytic factor, apoL-1, and apoA-1 exhibit specificity for anionic membranes, whereas Hpr permeabilizes both anionic and zwitterionic membranes. Analysis of the relative particle sizes of susceptible liposomes reveals distinctly different membrane-active behavior for native TLF and the delipidated protein components. We propose that lysosomal membrane damage in TLF-susceptible trypanosomes is initiated by the stable association of the TLF particle with the lysosomal membrane and that this is a property unique to this subclass of human HDL.

A conserved hydrophobic core at Bcl-xL mediates its structural stability and binding affinity with BH3-domain peptide of pro-apoptotic protein

Bcl-2 family proteins regulate apoptosis through their homo- and heterodimerization. By protein sequence analysis and structural comparison, we have identified a conserved hydrophobic core at the BH1 and BH2 domains of Bcl-2 family proteins. The hydrophobic core is stabilized by hydrophobic interactions among the residues of Trp137, Ile140, Trp181, Ile182, Trp188 and Phe191 in Bcl-x(L). Destabilization of the hydrophobic core can promote the protein unfolding and pore formation in synthetic lipid vesicles. Interestingly, though the hydrophobic core does not participate in binding with BH3 domain of pro-apoptotic proteins, disruption of the hydrophobic core can reduce the affinity of Bcl-x(L) with BH3-domain peptide by changing the conformation of Bcl-x(L) C-terminal residues that are involved in the peptide interaction. The BH3-domain peptide binding affinity and pore forming propensity of Bcl-x(L) were correlated to its death-repressor activity, which provides new information to help study the regulatory mechanism of anti-apoptotic proteins. Meanwhile, as the tryptophans are conserved in the hydrophobic core, in vitro binding assay based on FRET of "Trp-->AEDANS" can be devised to screen for new modulators targeting anti-apoptotic proteins as well as "multi-BH domains" pro-apoptotic proteins.

CED-9 and mitochondrial homeostasis in C. elegans muscle

Mitochondrial homeostasis reflects a dynamic balance between membrane fission and fusion events thought essential for mitochondrial function. We report here that altered expression of the C. elegans BCL2 homolog CED-9 affects both mitochondrial fission and fusion. Although striated muscle cells lacking CED-9 have no alteration in mitochondrial size or ultrastructure, these cells appear more sensitive to mitochondrial fragmentation. By contrast, increased CED-9 expression in these cells produces highly interconnected mitochondria. This mitochondrial phenotype is partially suppressed by increased expression of the dynamin-related GTPase DRP-1, with suppression dependent on the BH3 binding pocket of CED-9. This suppression suggests that CED-9 directly regulates DRP-1, a model supported by our finding that CED-9 activates the GTPase activity of human DRP1. Thus, CED-9 is capable of regulating the mitochondrial fission-fusion cycle but is not essential for either fission or fusion.

Research progress in anti-apoptosis gene Bcl-xL

Apoptosis is a physiological process that an organism selectively eliminates cells that are no longer needed, or have been damaged, or are dangerous. Bcl-xL, an important member of the Bcl-2 family that plays indispensable roles in regulating cell survival and apoptosis, is frequently over-expressed in various kinds of human cancers. The inhibition of this molecule is associated with decreased tumorigenesis and resistance to conventional chemotherapy. This article briefly reviews some progresses in the study of Bcl-xL in the past few years.

Disparate proteins use similar architectures to damage membranes

Membrane disruption can efficiently alter cellular function; indeed, pore-forming toxins (PFTs) are well known as important bacterial virulence factors. However, recent data have revealed that structures similar to those found in PFTs are found in membrane active proteins across disparate phyla. Many similarities can be identified only at the 3D-structural level. Of note, domains found in membrane-attack complex proteins of complement and perforin (MACPF) resemble cholesterol-dependent cytolysins from Gram-positive bacteria, and the Bcl family of apoptosis regulators share similar architectures with Escherichia coli pore-forming colicins. These and other correlations provide considerable help in understanding the structural requirements for membrane binding and pore formation.

Unravelling the bcl-2 apoptosis code with a simple model system

Using defined lipids and purified proteins, Billen et al. offer a new model to reconcile the two currently opposing models for how Bcl-2 family member interactions regulate cell death.

Annexins sense changes in intracellular pH during hypoxia

The pH(i) (intracellular pH) is an important physiological parameter which is altered during hypoxia and ischaemia, pathological conditions accompanied by a dramatic decrease in pH(i). Sensors of pH(i) include ion transport systems which control intracellular Ca2+ gradients and link changes in pH(i) to functions as diverse as proliferation and apoptosis. The annexins are a protein family characterized by Ca2+-dependent interactions with cellular membranes. Additionally, in vitro evidence points to the existence of pH-dependent, Ca(2+)-independent membrane association of several annexins. We show that hypoxia promotes the interaction of the recombinant annexin A2-S100A10 (p11) and annexin A6 with the plasma membrane. We have investigated in vivo the influence of the pH(i) on the membrane association of human annexins A1, A2, A4, A5 and A6 tagged with fluorescent proteins, and characterized this interaction for endogenous annexins present in smooth muscle and HEK (human embryonic kidney)-293 cells biochemically and by immunofluorescence microscopy. Our results show that annexin A6 and the heterotetramer A2-S100A10 (but not annexins A1, A4 and A5) interact independently of Ca2+ with the plasma membrane at pH 6.2 and 6.6. The dimerization of annexin A2 within the annexin A2-S100A10 complex is essential for the pH-dependent membrane interaction at this pH range. The pH-induced membrane binding of annexins A6 and A2-S100A10 might have consequences for their functions as membrane organizers and channel modulators.

Anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 Family Proteins Disassemble Ceramide Channels

Early in mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, the mitochondrial outer membrane becomes permeable to proteins that, when released into the cytosol, initiate the execution phase of apoptosis. Proteins in the Bcl-2 family regulate this permeabilization, but the molecular composition of the mitochondrial outer membrane pore is under debate. We reported previously that at physiologically relevant levels, ceramides form stable channels in mitochondrial outer membranes capable of passing the largest proteins known to exit mitochondria during apoptosis (Siskind, L. J., Kolesnick, R. N., and Colombini, M. (2006) Mitochondrion 6, 118-125). Here we show that Bcl-2 proteins are not required for ceramide to form protein-permeable channels in mitochondrial outer membranes. However, both recombinant human Bcl-x(L) and CED-9, the Caenorhabditis elegans Bcl-2 homologue, disassemble ceramide channels in the mitochondrial outer membranes of isolated mitochondria from rat liver and yeast. Importantly, Bcl-x L and CED-9 disassemble ceramide channels in the defined system of solvent-free planar phospholipid membranes. Thus, ceramide channel disassembly likely results from direct interaction with these anti-apoptotic proteins. Mutants of Bcl-x L act on ceramide channels as expected from their ability to be anti-apoptotic. Thus, ceramide channels may be one mechanism for releasing pro-apoptotic proteins from mitochondria during the induction phase of apoptosis.

Regulation of apoptosis by C. elegans CED-9 in the absence of the C-terminal transmembrane domain

Bcl-2 proteins regulate apoptosis in organisms as diverse as mammals and nematodes. These proteins are often localized at mitochondria by a C-terminal transmembrane domain. Although the transmembrane domain and mitochondrial localization are centrally involved in specific cases of vertebrate Bcl-2 activity, the significance of this localization is not clear for all species. Studying the Caenorhabditis elegans Bcl-2 homolog CED-9, we found that the transmembrane domain was both necessary and sufficient for localization at mitochondrial outer membranes. Furthermore, we found that in our assays, ced-9 transgenes lacking the transmembrane domain, although somewhat less active than equivalent transgenes derived from wild-type ced-9, rescued embryonic lethality of ced-9(lf) animals and responded properly to upstream signals in controlling the fate of Pn.aap neurons. Both of these apoptotic activities were retained in a construct where CED-9 lacking the transmembrane domain was targeted to the cytosolic surface of the endoplasmic reticulum and derived organelles, suggesting that in wild-type animals, accumulation at mitochondria is not essential for CED-9 to either inhibit or promote apoptosis in C. elegans. Taken together, these data are consistent with a multimodal character of CED-9 action, with an ability to regulate apoptosis through interactions in the cytosol coexisting with additional evolutionarily conserved role(s) at the membrane.