Loop 2 of limulus myosin III is phosphorylated by protein kinase A and autophosphorylation

Unconventional Myosins: How Regulation Meets Function

Unconventional myosins are multi-potent molecular motors that are assigned important roles in fundamental cellular processes. Depending on their mechano-enzymatic properties and structural features, myosins fulfil their roles by acting as cargo transporters along the actin cytoskeleton, molecular anchors or tension sensors. In order to perform such a wide range of roles and modes of action, myosins need to be under tight regulation in time and space. This is achieved at multiple levels through diverse regulatory mechanisms: the alternative splicing of various isoforms, the interaction with their binding partners, their phosphorylation, their applied load and the composition of their local environment, such as ions and lipids. This review summarizes our current knowledge of how unconventional myosins are regulated, how these regulatory mechanisms can adapt to the specific features of a myosin and how they can converge with each other in order to ensure the required tight control of their function.

Kinetic Adaptations of Myosins for Their Diverse Cellular Functions

Members of the myosin superfamily are involved in all aspects of eukaryotic life. Their function ranges from the transport of organelles and cargos to the generation of membrane tension, and the contraction of muscle. The diversity of physiological functions is remarkable, given that all enzymatically active myosins follow a conserved mechanoenzymatic cycle in which the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate is coupled to either actin-based transport or tethering of actin to defined cellular compartments. Kinetic capacities and limitations of a myosin are determined by the extent to which actin can accelerate the hydrolysis of ATP and the release of the hydrolysis products and are indispensably linked to its physiological tasks. This review focuses on kinetic competencies that - together with structural adaptations - result in myosins with unique mechanoenzymatic properties targeted to their diverse cellular functions.

Various Themes of Myosin Regulation

Members of the myosin superfamily are actin-based molecular motors that are indispensable for cellular homeostasis. The vast functional and structural diversity of myosins accounts for the variety and complexity of the underlying allosteric regulatory mechanisms that determine the activation or inhibition of myosin motor activity and enable precise timing and spatial aspects of myosin function at the cellular level. This review focuses on the molecular basis of posttranslational regulation of eukaryotic myosins from different classes across species by allosteric intrinsic and extrinsic effectors. First, we highlight the impact of heavy and light chain phosphorylation. Second, we outline intramolecular regulatory mechanisms such as autoinhibition and subsequent activation. Third, we discuss diverse extramolecular allosteric mechanisms ranging from actin-linked regulatory mechanisms to myosin:cargo interactions. At last, we briefly outline the allosteric regulation of myosins with synthetic compounds.

My oh my(osin): Insights into how auditory hair cells count, measure, and shape

The mechanisms underlying mechanosensory hair bundle formation in auditory sensory cells are largely mysterious. In this issue, Lelli et al. (2016. J. Cell Biol.http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201509017) reveal that a pair of molecular motors, myosin IIIa and myosin IIIb, is involved in the hair bundle’s morphology and hearing.

Ankyrin domain of myosin 16 influences motor function and decreases protein phosphatase catalytic activity

The unconventional myosin 16 (Myo16), which may have a role in regulation of cell cycle and cell proliferation, can be found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It has a unique, eight ankyrin repeat containing pre-motor domain, the so-called ankyrin domain (My16Ank). Ankyrin repeats are present in several other proteins, e.g., in the regulatory subunit (MYPT1) of the myosin phosphatase holoenzyme, which binds to the protein phosphatase-1 catalytic subunit (PP1c). My16Ank shows sequence similarity to MYPT1. In this work, the interactions of recombinant and isolated My16Ank were examined in vitro. To test the effects of My16Ank on myosin motor function, we used skeletal muscle myosin or nonmuscle myosin 2B. The results showed that My16Ank bound to skeletal muscle myosin (K D ≈ 2.4 µM) and the actin-activated ATPase activity of heavy meromyosin (HMM) was increased in the presence of My16Ank, suggesting that the ankyrin domain can modulate myosin motor activity. My16Ank showed no direct interaction with either globular or filamentous actin. We found, using a surface plasmon resonance-based binding technique, that My16Ank bound to PP1cα (K D ≈ 540 nM) and also to PP1cδ (K D ≈ 600 nM) and decreased its phosphatase activity towards the phosphorylated myosin regulatory light chain. Our results suggest that one function of the ankyrin domain is probably to regulate the function of Myo16. It may influence the motor activity, and in complex with the PP1c isoforms, it can play an important role in the targeted dephosphorylation of certain, as yet unidentified, intracellular proteins.

Phosphorylation of the kinase domain regulates autophosphorylation of myosin IIIA and its translocation in microvilli

Motor activity of myosin III is regulated by autophosphorylation. To investigate the role of the kinase activity on the transporter function of myosin IIIA (Myo3A), we identified the phosphorylation sites of kinase domain (KD), which is responsible for the regulation of kinase activity and thus motor function. Using mass spectrometry, we identified six phosphorylation sites in the KD, which are highly conserved among class III myosins and Ste20-related misshapen (Msn) kinases. Two predominant sites, Thr¹⁸⁴ and Thr¹⁸⁸, in KD are important for phosphorylation of the KD as well as the motor domain, which regulates the affinity for actin. In the Caco2 cells, the full-length human Myo3A (hMyo3AFull) markedly enlarged the microvilli, although it did not show discrete localization within the microvilli. On the other hand, hMyo3AFull(T184A) and hMyo3AFull(T188A) both showed clear localization at the microvilli tips. Our results suggest that Myo3A induces large actin bundle formation to form microvilli, and phosphorylation of KD at Thr¹⁸⁴ and Thr¹⁸⁸ is critical for the kinase activity of Myo3A, and regulation of Myo3A translocation to the tip of microvilli. Retinal extracts potently dephosphorylate both KD and motor domain without IQ motifs (MDIQo), which was inhibited by okadaic acid (OA) with nanomolar range and by tautomycetin (TMC) with micromolar range. The results suggest that Myo3A phosphatase is protein phosphatase type 2A (PP2A). Supporting this result, recombinant PP2Ac potently dephosphorylates both KD and MDIQo. We propose that the phosphorylation–dephosphorylation mechanism plays an essential role in mediating the transport and actin bundle formation and stability functions of hMyo3A.

Drosophila myosin-XX functions as an actin-binding protein to facilitate the interaction between Zyx102 and actin

The class XX myosin is a member of the diverse myosin superfamily and exists in insects and several lower invertebrates. DmMyo20, the class XX myosin in Drosophila, is encoded by dachs, which functions as a crucial downstream component of the Fat signaling pathway, influencing growth, affinity, and gene expression during development. Sequence analysis shows that DmMyo20 contains a unique N-terminal extension, the motor domain, followed by one IQ motif, and a C-terminal tail. To investigate the biochemical properties of DmMyo20, we expressed several DmMyo20 truncated constructs containing the motor domain in the baculovirus/Sf9 system. We found that the motor domain of DmMyo20 had neither ATPase activity nor the ability to bind to ATP, suggesting that DmMyo20 does not function as a molecular motor. We found that the motor domain of DmMyo20 could specifically bind to actin filaments in an ATP-independent manner and enhance the interaction between actin filaments and Zyx102, a downstream component of DmMyo20 in the Fat signaling pathway. These results suggest that DmMyo20 functions as a scaffold protein, but not as a molecular motor, in a signaling pathway controlling cell differentiation.

What the clock tells the eye: lessons from an ancient arthropod

Circadian changes in visual sensitivity have been observed in a wide range of species, vertebrates, and invertebrates, but the processes impacted and the underlying mechanisms largely are unexplored. Among arthropods, effects of circadian signals on vision have been examined in most detail in the lateral compound eye (LE) of the American horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus, a chelicerate arthropod. As a consequence of processes influenced by a central circadian clock, Limulus can see at night nearly as well as they do during the day. The effects of the clock on horseshoe crab LE retinas are diverse and include changes in structure, gene expression, and rhabdom biochemistry. An examination of the known effects of circadian rhythms on LEs shows that the effects have three important outcomes: an increase in visual sensitivity at night, a rapid decrease in visual sensitivity at dawn, and maintenance of eyes in a relatively low state of sensitivity during the day, even in the dark. All three outcomes may be critically important for species' survival. Specific effects of circadian rhythms on vision will certainly vary with species and according to life styles. Studies of the circadian regulation of Limulus vision have revealed that these effects can be extremely diverse and profound and suggest that circadian clocks can play a critical role in the ability of animals to adapt to the dramatic daily changes in ambient illumination.

Opsin1-2, G(q)α and arrestin levels at Limulus rhabdoms are controlled by diurnal light and a circadian clock

Dark and light adaptation in photoreceptors involve multiple processes including those that change protein concentrations at photosensitive membranes. Light- and dark-adaptive changes in protein levels at rhabdoms have been described in detail in white-eyed Drosophila maintained under artificial light. Here we tested whether protein levels at rhabdoms change significantly in the highly pigmented lateral eyes of wild-caught Limulus polyphemus maintained in natural diurnal illumination and whether these changes are under circadian control. We found that rhabdomeral levels of opsins (Ops1-2), the G protein activated by rhodopsin (G(q)α) and arrestin change significantly from day to night and that nighttime levels of each protein at rhabdoms are significantly influenced by signals from the animal's central circadian clock. Clock input at night increases Ops1-2 and G(q)α and decreases arrestin levels at rhabdoms. Clock input is also required for a rapid decrease in rhabdomeral Ops1-2 beginning at sunrise. We found further that dark adaptation during the day and the night are not equivalent. During daytime dark adaptation, when clock input is silent, the increase of Ops1-2 at rhabdoms is small and G(q)α levels do not increase. However, increases in Ops1-2 and G(q)α at rhabdoms are enhanced during daytime dark adaptation by treatments that elevate cAMP in photoreceptors, suggesting that the clock influences dark-adaptive increases in Ops1-2 and G(q)α at Limulus rhabdoms by activating cAMP-dependent processes. The circadian regulation of Ops1-2 and G(q)α levels at rhabdoms probably has a dual role: to increase retinal sensitivity at night and to protect photoreceptors from light damage during the day.

Regulation of the actin-activated MgATPase activity of Acanthamoeba myosin II by phosphorylation of serine 639 in motor domain loop 2

It had been proposed previously that only filamentous forms of Acanthamoeba myosin II have actin-activated MgATPase activity and that this activity is inhibited by phosphorylation of up to four serine residues in a repeating sequence in the C-terminal nonhelical tailpiece of the two heavy chains. We have reinvestigated these issues using recombinant WT and mutant myosins. Contrary to the earlier proposal, we show that two nonfilamentous forms of Acanthamoeba myosin II, heavy meromyosin and myosin subfragment 1, have actin-activated MgATPase that is down-regulated by phosphorylation. By mass spectroscopy, we identified five serines in the heavy chains that can be phosphorylated by a partially purified kinase preparation in vitro and also are phosphorylated in endogenous myosin isolated from the amoebae: four serines in the nonhelical tailpiece and Ser639 in loop 2 of the motor domain. S639A mutants of both subfragment 1 and full-length myosin had actin-activated MgATPase that was not inhibited by phosphorylation of the serines in the nonhelical tailpiece or their mutation to glutamic acid or aspartic acid. Conversely, S639D mutants of both subfragment 1 and full-length myosin were inactive, irrespective of the phosphorylation state of the serines in the nonhelical tailpiece. To our knowledge, this is the first example of regulation of the actin-activated MgATPase activity of any myosin by modification of surface loop 2.

Mouse class III myosins: kinase activity and phosphorylation sites

As class III unconventional myosins are motor proteins with an N-terminal kinase domain, it seems likely they play a role in both signaling and actin based transport. A growing body of evidence indicates that the motor functions of human class IIIA myosin, which has been implicated in progressive hearing loss, are modulated by intermolecular autophosphorylation. However, the phosphorylation sites have not been identified. We studied the kinase activity and phosphorylation sites of mouse class III myosins, mMyo3A and 3B, which are highly similar to their human orthologs. We demonstrate that the kinase domains of mMyo3A and 3B are active kinases, and that they have similar, if not identical, substrate specificities. We show that the kinase domains of these proteins autophosphorylate, and that they can phosphorylate sites within their myosin and tail domains. Using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, we identified phosphorylated sites in the kinase, myosin motor and tail domains of both mMyo3A and 3B. Most of the phosphorylated sites we identified and their consensus phosphorylation motifs are highly conserved among vertebrate class III myosins, including human class III myosins. Our findings are a major step toward understanding how the functions of class III myosins are regulated by phosphorylation.

Drosophila melanogaster myosin-18 represents a highly divergent motor with actin tethering properties

The gene encoding Drosophila myosin-18 is complex and can potentially yield six alternatively spliced mRNAs. One of the major features of this myosin is an N-terminal PDZ domain that is included in some of the predicted alternatively spliced products. To explore the biochemical properties of this protein, we engineered two minimal motor domain (MMD)-like constructs, one that contains the N-terminal PDZ (myosin-18 M-PDZ) domain and one that does not (myosin-18 M-ΔPDZ). These two constructs were expressed in the baculovirus/Sf9 system. The results suggest that Drosophila myosin-18 is highly divergent from most other myosins in the superfamily. Neither of the MMD constructs had an actin-activated MgATPase activity, nor did they even bind ATP. Both myosin-18 M-PDZ and M-ΔPDZ proteins bound to actin with K_d values of 2.61 and 1.04 μm, respectively, but only about 50–75% of the protein bound to actin even at high actin concentrations. Unbound proteins from these actin binding assays reiterated the 60% saturation maximum, suggesting an equilibrium between actin-binding and non-actin-binding conformations of Drosophila myosin-18 in vitro. Neither the binding affinity nor the substoichiometric binding was significantly affected by ATP. Optical trapping of single molecules in three-bead assays showed short lived interactions of the myosin-18 motors with actin filaments. Combined, these data suggest that this highly divergent motor may function as an actin tethering protein.

Effect of phosphorylation in the motor domain of human myosin IIIA on its ATP hydrolysis cycle

Previous findings suggested that the motor activity of human myosin IIIA (HM3A) is influenced by phosphorylation [Kambara, T., et al. (2006) J. Biol. Chem. 281, 37291-37301]; however, how phosphorylation controls the motor activity of HM3A is obscure. In this study, we clarify the kinetic basis of the effect of phosphorylation on the ATP hydrolysis cycle of the motor domain of HM3A (huM3AMD). The affinity of human myosin IIIA for filamentous actin in the presence of ATP is more than 100-fold decreased by phosphorylation, while the maximum rate of ATP turnover is virtually unchanged. The rate of release of ADP from acto-phosphorylated huM3AMD is 6-fold greater than the overall cycle rate, and thus not a rate-determining step. The rate constant of the ATP hydrolysis step of the actin-dissociated form is markedly increased by phosphorylation by 30-fold. The dissociation constant for dissociation of the ATP-bound form of huM3AMD from actin is greatly increased by phosphorylation, and this result agrees well with the significant increase in the K(actin) value of the steady-state ATPase reaction. The rate constant of the P(i) off step is greater than 60 s(-1), suggesting that this step does not limit the overall ATP hydrolysis cycle rate. Our kinetic model indicates that phosphorylation induces the dissociation of huM3AMD from actin during the ATP hydrolysis cycle, and this is due to the phosphorylation-dependent marked decrease in the affinity of huM3AMD.ATP for actin and the increase in the ATP hydrolysis rate of huM3AMD in the actin-dissociated state. These results suggest that the phosphorylation of myosin IIIA significantly lowers the duty ratio, which may influence the cargo transporting ability of the native form of myosin IIIA that contains the ATP-independent actin binding site in the tail.

Cloning and distribution of myosin 3B in the mouse retina: differential distribution in cone outer segments

Class III myosins are important for the function and survival of photoreceptors and ciliary hair cells. Although vertebrates possess two class III myosin genes, myo3A and myo3B, recent studies have focused on Myo3A because mutations in the human gene are implicated in progressive hearing loss. Myo3B may compensate for defects in Myo3A, yet little is known about its distribution and function. This study focuses on Myo3B expression in the mouse retina. We cloned two variants of myo3B from mouse retina and determined that they are expressed early in retinal development. In this study we show for the first time in a mammal that both Myo3B and Myo3A proteins are present in inner segments of all photoreceptors. Myo3B is also present in outer segments of S opsin-immunoreactive cones but not M opsin dominant cones. Myo3B is also detected in rare cells of the inner nuclear layer and some ganglion cells. Myo3B may have diverse roles in retinal neurons. In photoreceptor inner segments Myo3B is positioned appropriately to prevent photoreceptor loss of function caused by Myo3A defects.

MODPROPEP: a program for knowledge-based modeling of protein-peptide complexes

MODPROPEP is a web server for knowledge-based modeling of protein–peptide complexes, specifically peptides in complex with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins and kinases. The available crystal structures of protein–peptide complexes in PDB are used as templates for modeling peptides of desired sequence in the substrate-binding pocket of MHCs or protein kinases. The substrate peptides are modeled using the same backbone conformation as in the template and the side-chain conformations are obtained by the program SCWRL. MODPROPEP provides a number of user-friendly interfaces for visualizing the structure of the modeled protein–peptide complexes and analyzing the contacts made by the modeled peptide ligand in the substrate-binding pocket of the MHC or protein kinase. Analysis of these specific inter-molecular contacts is crucial for understanding structural basis of the substrate specificity of these two protein families. This software also provides appropriate interfaces for identifying, putative MHC-binding peptides in the sequence of an antigen or phosphorylation sites on the substrate protein of a kinase, by scoring these inter-molecular contacts using residue-based statistical pair potentials. MODPROPEP would complement various available sequence-based programs (SYFPEITHI, SCANSITE, etc.) for predicting substrates of MHCs and protein kinases. The program is available at http://www.nii.res.in/modpropep.html