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Ryzhykau YL, Vlasov AV, Orekhov PS, Rulev MI, Rogachev AV, Vlasova AD, Kazantsev AS, Verteletskiy DP, Skoi VV, Brennich ME, Pernot P, Murugova TN, Gordeliy VI, Kuklin AI. Ambiguities in and completeness of SAS data analysis of membrane proteins: the case of the sensory rhodopsin II-transducer complex. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D-STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 77:1386-1400. [PMID: 34726167 DOI: 10.1107/s2059798321009542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Membrane proteins (MPs) play vital roles in the function of cells and are also major drug targets. Structural information on proteins is vital for understanding their mechanism of function and is critical for the development of drugs. However, obtaining high-resolution structures of membrane proteins, in particular, under native conditions is still a great challenge. In such cases, the low-resolution methods small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering (SAXS and SANS) might provide valuable structural information. However, in some cases small-angle scattering (SAS) provides ambiguous ab initio structural information if complementary measurements are not performed and/or a priori information on the protein is not taken into account. Understanding the nature of the limitations may help to overcome these problems. One of the main problems of SAS data analysis of solubilized membrane proteins is the contribution of the detergent belt surrounding the MP. Here, a comprehensive analysis of how the detergent belt contributes to the SAS data of a membrane-protein complex of sensory rhodopsin II with its cognate transducer from Natronomonas pharaonis (NpSRII-NpHtrII) was performed. The influence of the polydispersity of NpSRII-NpHtrII oligomerization is the second problem that is addressed here. It is shown that inhomogeneity in the scattering length density of the detergent belt surrounding a membrane part of the complex and oligomerization polydispersity significantly impacts on SAXS and SANS profiles, and therefore on 3D ab initio structures. It is described how both problems can be taken into account to improve the quality of SAS data treatment. Since SAS data for MPs are usually obtained from solubilized proteins, and their detergent belt and, to a certain extent, oligomerization polydispersity are sufficiently common phenomena, the approaches proposed in this work might be used in SAS studies of different MPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yury L Ryzhykau
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Alexey V Vlasov
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Philipp S Orekhov
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Maksim I Rulev
- Structural Biology Group, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Andrey V Rogachev
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Anastasia D Vlasova
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Alexander S Kazantsev
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Dmitry P Verteletskiy
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Vadim V Skoi
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Martha E Brennich
- Synchrotron Crystallography Team, EMBL Grenoble Outstation, 38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Petra Pernot
- Structural Biology Group, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Tatiana N Murugova
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Valentin I Gordeliy
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
| | - Alexander I Kuklin
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russian Federation
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Abstract
Two-component systems (TCS) are widespread signaling systems present in all domains of life. TCS typically consist of a signal receptor/transducer and a response regulator. The receptors (histidine kinases, chemoreceptors and photoreceptors) are often embedded in the membrane and have a similar modular structure. Chemoreceptors were shown to function in highly ordered arrays, with trimers of dimers being the smallest functional unit. However, much less is known about photoreceptors. Here, we use small-angle scattering (SAS) to show that detergent-solubilized sensory rhodopsin II in complex with its cognate transducer forms dimers at low salt concentration, which associate into trimers of dimers at higher buffer molarities. We then fit an atomistic model of the whole complex into the SAS data. The obtained results suggest that the trimer of dimers is "tripod"-shaped and that the contacts between the dimers occur only through their cytoplasmic regions, whereas the transmembrane regions remain unconnected.
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Lipid Dynamics in Diisobutylene-Maleic Acid (DIBMA) Lipid Particles in Presence of Sensory Rhodopsin II. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052548. [PMID: 33806280 PMCID: PMC7961963 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Amphiphilic diisobutylene/maleic acid (DIBMA) copolymers extract lipid-encased membrane proteins from lipid bilayers in a detergent-free manner, yielding nanosized, discoidal DIBMA lipid particles (DIBMALPs). Depending on the DIBMA/lipid ratio, the size of DIBMALPs can be broadly varied which makes them suitable for the incorporation of proteins of different sizes. Here, we examine the influence of the DIBMALP sizes and the presence of protein on the dynamics of encased lipids. As shown by a set of biophysical methods, the stability of DIBMALPs remains unaffected at different DIBMA/lipid ratios. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations confirm the formation of viable DIBMALPs with an overall size of up to 35 nm. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy of nitroxides located at the 5th, 12th or 16th carbon atom positions in phosphatidylcholine-based spin labels reveals that the dynamics of enclosed lipids are not altered by the DIBMALP size. The presence of the membrane protein sensory rhodopsin II from Natronomonas pharaonis (NpSRII) results in a slight increase in the lipid dynamics compared to empty DIBMALPs. The light-induced photocycle shows full functionality of DIBMALPs-embedded NpSRII and a significant effect of the protein-to-lipid ratio during preparation on the NpSRII dynamics. This study indicates a possible expansion of the applicability of the DIBMALP technology on studies of membrane protein–protein interaction and oligomerization in a constraining environment.
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Colbasevici A, Voskoboynikova N, Orekhov PS, Bozdaganyan ME, Karlova MG, Sokolova OS, Klare JP, Mulkidjanian AY, Shaitan KV, Steinhoff HJ. Lipid dynamics in nanoparticles formed by maleic acid-containing copolymers: EPR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183207. [PMID: 31987867 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Amphiphilic maleic acid-containing copolymers account for a recent methodical breakthrough in the study of membrane proteins. Their application enables a detergent-free extraction of membrane proteins from lipid bilayers, yielding stable water-soluble, discoidal lipid bilayer particles with incorporated proteins, which are wrapped with copolymers. Although many studies confirm the potential of this approach for membrane protein research, the interactions between the maleic acid-containing copolymers and extracted lipids, as well as possible effects of the copolymers on lipid-embedded proteins deserve further scrutinization. Here, we combine electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and coarse-grain molecular dynamics simulations to compare the distribution and dynamics of lipids in lipid particles of phospholipid bilayers encased either by an aliphatic diisobutylene/maleic acid copolymer (DIBMALPs) or by an aromatic styrene/maleic acid copolymer (SMALPs). Nitroxides located at the 5th, 12th or 16th carbon atom positions in phosphatidylcholine-based spin labels experience restrictions of their reorientational motion depending on the type of encasing copolymer. The dynamics of the lipids was less constrained in DIBMALPs than in SMALPs with the affinity of spin labeled lipids to the polymeric rim being more pronounced in SMALPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Philipp S Orekhov
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia; Sechenov University, Moscow 119146, Russia; Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Marine E Bozdaganyan
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia; Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; N.N. Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Maria G Karlova
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga S Sokolova
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Johann P Klare
- Department of Physics, Osnabrueck University, 49069 Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Armen Y Mulkidjanian
- Department of Physics, Osnabrueck University, 49069 Osnabrueck, Germany; A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; Department of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Konstantin V Shaitan
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; N.N. Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia
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5
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Mosslehy W, Voskoboynikova N, Colbasevici A, Ricke A, Klose D, Klare JP, Mulkidjanian AY, Steinhoff HJ. Conformational Dynamics of Sensory Rhodopsin II in Nanolipoprotein and Styrene-Maleic Acid Lipid Particles. Photochem Photobiol 2019; 95:1195-1204. [PMID: 30849183 DOI: 10.1111/php.13096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Styrene-maleic acid lipid particles (SMALPs) provide stable water-soluble nanocontainers for lipid-encased membrane proteins. Possible effects of the SMA-stabilized lipid environment on the interaction dynamics between functionally coupled membrane proteins remain to be elucidated. The photoreceptor sensory rhodopsin II, NpSRII and its cognate transducer, NpHtrII, of Natronomonas pharaonis form a transmembrane complex, NpSRII2 /NpHtrII2 that plays a key role in negative phototaxis and provides a unique model system to study the light-induced transfer of a conformational signal between two integral membrane proteins. Photon absorption induces transient structural changes in NpSRII comprising an outward movement of helix F that cause further conformational alterations in NpHtrII. We applied site-directed spin labeling and time-resolved optical and EPR spectroscopy to compare the conformational dynamics of NpSRII2 /NpHtrII2 reconstituted in SMALPs with that of nanolipoprotein particle and liposome preparations. NpSRII and NpSRII2 /NpHtrII2 show similar photocycles in liposomes and nanolipoprotein particles. An accelerated decay of the M photointermediate found for SMALPs can be explained by a high local proton concentration provided by the carboxylic groups of the SMA polymer. Light-induced large-scale conformational changes of NpSRII2 /NpHtrII2 observed in liposomes and nanolipoprotein particles are affected in SMALPs, indicating restrictions of the protein's conformational freedom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wageiha Mosslehy
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
| | | | | | - Adrian Ricke
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Daniel Klose
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany.,Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Johann P Klare
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Armen Y Mulkidjanian
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany.,School of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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Orekhov P, Bothe A, Steinhoff HJ, Shaitan KV, Raunser S, Fotiadis D, Schlesinger R, Klare JP, Engelhard M. Sensory Rhodopsin I and Sensory Rhodopsin II Form Trimers of Dimers in Complex with their Cognate Transducers. Photochem Photobiol 2018; 93:796-804. [PMID: 28500714 DOI: 10.1111/php.12763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Archaeal photoreceptors consist of sensory rhodopsins in complex with their cognate transducers. After light excitation, a two-component signaling chain is activated, which is homologous to the chemotactic signaling cascades in enterobacteria. The latter system has been studied in detail. From structural and functional studies, a picture emerges which includes stable signaling complexes, which assemble to receptor arrays displaying hexagonal structural elements. At this higher order structural level, signal amplification and sensory adaptation occur. Here, we describe electron microscopy data, which show that also the archaeal phototaxis receptors sensory rhodopsin I and II in complex with their cognate transducers can form hexagonal lattices even in the presence of a detergent. This result could be confirmed by molecular dynamics calculations, which revealed similar structural elements. Calculations of the global modes of motion displayed one mode, which resembles the "U"-"V" transition of the NpSRII:NpHtrII complex, which was previously argued to represent a functionally relevant global conformational change accompanying the activation process [Ishchenko et al. (2013) J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 123, 55-58]. A model of cooperativity at the transmembrane level is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Orekhov
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany.,Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, Russia
| | - Arne Bothe
- Department Structural Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | | | | | - Stefan Raunser
- Department Structural Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Dimitrios Fotiadis
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ramona Schlesinger
- Department of Physics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Genetic Biophysics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Johann P Klare
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Martin Engelhard
- Department Structural Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
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Abstract
Microbial rhodopsins (MRs) are a large family of photoactive membrane proteins, found in microorganisms belonging to all kingdoms of life, with new members being constantly discovered. Among the MRs are light-driven proton, cation and anion pumps, light-gated cation and anion channels, and various photoreceptors. Due to their abundance and amenability to studies, MRs served as model systems for a great variety of biophysical techniques, and recently found a great application as optogenetic tools. While the basic aspects of microbial rhodopsins functioning have been known for some time, there is still a plenty of unanswered questions. This chapter presents and summarizes the available knowledge, focusing on the functional and structural studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Gushchin
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudniy, Russia.
| | - Valentin Gordeliy
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudniy, Russia.
- University of Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, Grenoble, France.
- Institute of Complex Systems (ICS), ICS-6: Structural Biochemistry, Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany.
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8
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Voskoboynikova N, Mosslehy W, Colbasevici A, Ismagulova TT, Bagrov DV, Akovantseva AA, Timashev PS, Mulkidjanian AY, Bagratashvili VN, Shaitan KV, Kirpichnikov MP, Steinhoff HJ. Characterization of an archaeal photoreceptor/transducer complex from Natronomonas pharaonis assembled within styrene–maleic acid lipid particles. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra10756k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The archaeal receptor/transducer complex NpSRII/NpHtrII retains its integrity upon reconstitution in styrene–maleic acid lipid particles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - W. Mosslehy
- Department of Physics
- University of Osnabrück
- Osnabrück
- Germany
| | - A. Colbasevici
- Department of Physics
- University of Osnabrück
- Osnabrück
- Germany
| | - T. T. Ismagulova
- Department of Bioengineering
- Faculty of Biology
- Lomonosov Moscow State University
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - D. V. Bagrov
- Department of Bioengineering
- Faculty of Biology
- Lomonosov Moscow State University
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - A. A. Akovantseva
- Institute of Photonic Technologies of Research Center “Crystallography and Photonics” of RAS
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - P. S. Timashev
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine of I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University
- Moscow
- Russia
- Institute of Photonic Technologies of Research Center “Crystallography and Photonics” of RAS
- Moscow
| | | | - V. N. Bagratashvili
- Institute of Photonic Technologies of Research Center “Crystallography and Photonics” of RAS
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - K. V. Shaitan
- Department of Bioengineering
- Faculty of Biology
- Lomonosov Moscow State University
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - M. P. Kirpichnikov
- Department of Bioengineering
- Faculty of Biology
- Lomonosov Moscow State University
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - H.-J. Steinhoff
- Department of Physics
- University of Osnabrück
- Osnabrück
- Germany
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Bagrov DV, Voskoboynikova N, Armeev GA, Mosslehy W, Gluhov GS, Ismagulova TT, Mulkidjanian AY, Kirpichnikov MP, Steinhoff HJ, Shaitan KV. Characterization of lipodisc nanoparticles containing sensory rhodopsin II and its cognate transducer from Natronomonas pharaonis. Biophysics (Nagoya-shi) 2016. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006350916060063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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10
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Orekhov PS, Klose D, Mulkidjanian AY, Shaitan KV, Engelhard M, Klare JP, Steinhoff HJ. Signaling and Adaptation Modulate the Dynamics of the Photosensoric Complex of Natronomonas pharaonis. PLoS Comput Biol 2015; 11:e1004561. [PMID: 26496122 PMCID: PMC4651059 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Motile bacteria and archaea respond to chemical and physical stimuli seeking optimal conditions for survival. To this end transmembrane chemo- and photoreceptors organized in large arrays initiate signaling cascades and ultimately regulate the rotation of flagellar motors. To unravel the molecular mechanism of signaling in an archaeal phototaxis complex we performed coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations of a trimer of receptor/transducer dimers, namely NpSRII/NpHtrII from Natronomonas pharaonis. Signaling is regulated by a reversible methylation mechanism called adaptation, which also influences the level of basal receptor activation. Mimicking two extreme methylation states in our simulations we found conformational changes for the transmembrane region of NpSRII/NpHtrII which resemble experimentally observed light-induced changes. Further downstream in the cytoplasmic domain of the transducer the signal propagates via distinct changes in the dynamics of HAMP1, HAMP2, the adaptation domain and the binding region for the kinase CheA, where conformational rearrangements were found to be subtle. Overall these observations suggest a signaling mechanism based on dynamic allostery resembling models previously proposed for E. coli chemoreceptors, indicating similar properties of signal transduction for archaeal photoreceptors and bacterial chemoreceptors. Achaea and bacteria can “see” and “sniffle”, they have photo- and chemosensors that measure the environment. On the cell poles, these sensor proteins form large arrays built of several thousands of different receptors. The receptors comprise extracellular or transmembrane sensory domains and elongated homodimeric coiled-coil bundles, which transduce the signals from the membrane across ~20 nm to a conserved cytoplasmic signaling subdomain in an unknown manner. In our study we performed coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations of the phototactic receptor/transducer complex from Natronomonas pharaonis. Comparing fully methylated and demethylated complexes reveals an interconversion between states of different dynamics along the coiled-coil bundle, which might represent the essential characteristics of the signal transfer from the membrane to the binding sites of the downstream kinase CheA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp S. Orekhov
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Daniel Klose
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Armen Y. Mulkidjanian
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany
- Department of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics and A. N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Martin Engelhard
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Johann P. Klare
- Department of Physics, University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany
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Lessons in Fundamental Mechanisms and Diverse Adaptations from the 2015 Bacterial Locomotion and Signal Transduction Meeting. J Bacteriol 2015. [PMID: 26195592 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00384-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In response to rapid changes in their environment, bacteria control a number of processes, including motility, cell division, biofilm formation, and virulence. Research presented in January 2015 at the biennial Bacterial Locomotion and Signal Transduction (BLAST) meeting in Tucson, AZ, illustrates the elegant complexity of the nanoarrays, nanomachines, and networks of interacting proteins that mediate such processes. Studies employing an array of biophysical, genetic, cell biology, and mathematical methods are providing an increasingly detailed understanding of the mechanisms of these systems within well-studied bacteria. Furthermore, comparisons of these processes in diverse bacterial species are providing insight into novel regulatory and functional mechanisms. This review summarizes research presented at the BLAST meeting on these fundamental mechanisms and diverse adaptations, including findings of importance for applications involving bacteria of medical or agricultural relevance.
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