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Du Y, Hultquist JF, Zhou Q, Olson A, Tseng Y, Zhang TH, Hong M, Tang K, Chen L, Meng X, McGregor MJ, Dai L, Gong D, Martin-Sancho L, Chanda S, Li X, Bensenger S, Krogan NJ, Sun R. mRNA display with library of even-distribution reveals cellular interactors of influenza virus NS1. Nat Commun 2020; 11:2449. [PMID: 32415096 PMCID: PMC7229031 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16140-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive examination of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) is fundamental for the understanding of cellular machineries. However, limitations in current methodologies often prevent the detection of PPIs with low abundance proteins. To overcome this challenge, we develop a mRNA display with library of even-distribution (md-LED) method that facilitates the detection of low abundance binders with high specificity and sensitivity. As a proof-of-principle, we apply md-LED to IAV NS1 protein. Complementary to AP-MS, md-LED enables us to validate previously described PPIs as well as to identify novel NS1 interactors. We show that interacting with FASN allows NS1 to directly regulate the synthesis of cellular fatty acids. We also use md-LED to identify a mutant of NS1, D92Y, results in a loss of interaction with CPSF1. The use of high-throughput sequencing as the readout for md-LED enables sensitive quantification of interactions, ultimately enabling massively parallel experimentation for the investigation of PPIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yushen Du
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
- Cancer Institute, ZJU-UCLA Joint Center for Medical Education and Research, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Judd F Hultquist
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, QB3, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Quan Zhou
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Anders Olson
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Yenwen Tseng
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Tian-Hao Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Mengying Hong
- Cancer Institute, ZJU-UCLA Joint Center for Medical Education and Research, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Kejun Tang
- Cancer Institute, ZJU-UCLA Joint Center for Medical Education and Research, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Liubo Chen
- Cancer Institute, ZJU-UCLA Joint Center for Medical Education and Research, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xiangzhi Meng
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Michael J McGregor
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, QB3, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Lei Dai
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Danyang Gong
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Laura Martin-Sancho
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Sumit Chanda
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Xinming Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, L, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Steve Bensenger
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Nevan J Krogan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, QB3, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Ren Sun
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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2
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Milroy LG, Grossmann TN, Hennig S, Brunsveld L, Ottmann C. Modulators of Protein–Protein Interactions. Chem Rev 2014; 114:4695-748. [DOI: 10.1021/cr400698c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 352] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lech-Gustav Milroy
- Laboratory
of Chemical Biology and Institute of Complex Molecular Systems, Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech
2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Tom N. Grossmann
- Chemical Genomics Centre of the Max Planck Society, Otto-Hahn Straße 15, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Technical University Dortmund, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Sven Hennig
- Chemical Genomics Centre of the Max Planck Society, Otto-Hahn Straße 15, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Luc Brunsveld
- Laboratory
of Chemical Biology and Institute of Complex Molecular Systems, Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech
2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Christian Ottmann
- Laboratory
of Chemical Biology and Institute of Complex Molecular Systems, Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech
2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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3
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Wada A. Development of Next-Generation Peptide Binders Using In vitro Display Technologies and Their Potential Applications. Front Immunol 2013; 4:224. [PMID: 23914189 PMCID: PMC3730117 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last decade, a variety of monoclonal antibodies have been developed and used as molecular targeting drugs in medical therapies. Although antibody drugs tend to have intense pharmacological activities and negligible side effects, several issues in their development and prescription remain to be resolved. Synthetic peptides with affinities and specificities for a desired target have received significant attention as alternatives to antibodies. In vitro display technologies are powerful methods for the selection of such peptides from combinatorial peptide libraries. Various types of peptide binders are being selected with such technologies for use in a wide range of fields from bioscience to medicine. This mini review article focuses on the current state of in vitro display selection of synthetic peptide binders and compares the selected peptides with natural peptides/proteins to provide a better understanding of the target affinities and inhibitory activities derived from their amino acid sequences and structural frameworks. The potential of synthetic peptide binders as alternatives to antibody drugs in therapeutic applications is also reviewed.
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4
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Hussain M, Gera N, Hill AB, Rao BM. Scaffold diversification enhances effectiveness of a superlibrary of hyperthermophilic proteins. ACS Synth Biol 2013; 2:6-13. [PMID: 23656321 DOI: 10.1021/sb300029m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The use of binding proteins from non-immunoglobulin scaffolds has become increasingly common in biotechnology and medicine. Typically, binders are isolated from a combinatorial library generated by mutating a single scaffold protein. In contrast, here we generated a "superlibrary" or "library-of-libraries" of 4 × 10(8) protein variants by mutagenesis of seven different hyperthermophilic proteins; six of the seven proteins have not been used as scaffolds prior to this study. Binding proteins for five different model targets were successfully isolated from this library. Binders obtained were derived from five out of the seven scaffolds. Strikingly, binders from this modestly sized superlibrary have affinities comparable or higher than those obtained from a library with 1000-fold higher sequence diversity but derived from a single stable scaffold. Thus scaffold diversification, i.e., randomization of multiple different scaffolds, is a powerful alternate strategy for combinatorial library construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmud Hussain
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Nimish Gera
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Andrew B. Hill
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Balaji M. Rao
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
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5
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Zhong X, Kieras E, Sousa E, D'Antona A, Baber JC, He T, Desharnais J, Wood L, Luxenberg D, Stahl M, Kriz R, Lin L, Somers W, Fitz LJ, Wright JF. Pyroglutamate and O-linked glycan determine functional production of anti-IL17A and anti-IL22 peptide-antibody bispecific genetic fusions. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:1409-19. [PMID: 23184956 PMCID: PMC3543023 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.417717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 11/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein biosynthesis and extracellular secretion are essential biological processes for therapeutic protein production in mammalian cells, which offer the capacity for correct folding and proper post-translational modifications. In this study, we have generated bispecific therapeutic fusion proteins in mammalian cells by combining a peptide and an antibody into a single open reading frame. A neutralizing peptide directed against interleukin-17A (IL17A) was genetically fused to the N termini of an anti-IL22 antibody, through either the light chain, the heavy chain, or both chains. Although the resulting fusion proteins bound and inhibited IL22 with the same affinity and potency as the unmodified anti-IL22 antibody, the peptide modality in the fusion scaffold was not active in the cell-based assay due to the N-terminal degradation. When a glutamine residue was introduced at the N terminus, which can be cyclized to form pyroglutamate in mammalian cells, the IL17A neutralization activity of the fusion protein was restored. Interestingly, the mass spectroscopic analysis of the purified fusion protein revealed an unexpected O-linked glycosylation modification at threonine 5 of the anti-IL17A peptide. The subsequent removal of this post-translational modification by site-directed mutagenesis drastically enhanced the IL17A binding affinity and neutralization potency for the resulting fusion protein. These results provide direct experimental evidence that post-translational modifications during protein biosynthesis along secretory pathways play critical roles in determining the structure and function of therapeutic proteins produced by mammalian cells. The newly engineered peptide-antibody genetic fusion is promising for therapeutically targeting multiple antigens in a single antibody-like molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotian Zhong
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Elizabeth Kieras
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Eric Sousa
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Aaron D'Antona
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - J. Christian Baber
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Tao He
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | | | - Lauren Wood
- Pfizer CovX Research, San Diego, California 92121
| | - Deborah Luxenberg
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Mark Stahl
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Ronald Kriz
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Laura Lin
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Will Somers
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Lori J. Fitz
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
| | - Jill F. Wright
- From the Pfizer BioTherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 and
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6
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Valencia CA, Zou J, Liu R. In vitro selection of proteins with desired characteristics using mRNA-display. Methods 2012. [PMID: 23201412 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
mRNA-display is an amplification-based, iterative rounds of in vitro protein selection technique that circumvents a number of difficulties associated with yeast two-hybrid and phage display. Because of the covalent linkage between the genotype and the phenotype, mRNA-display provides a powerful means for reading and amplifying a peptide or protein sequence after it has been selected from a library with very high diversity. The purpose of this article is to provide a summary of the field and practical framework of mRNA-display-based selections. We summarize the advantages and limitations of selections using mRNA-display as well as the recent applications, namely, the identification of novel affinity reagents, target-binding partners, and enzyme substrates from synthetic peptide or natural proteome libraries. Practically, we provide a detailed procedure for performing mRNA-display-based selections with the aim of identifying protease substrates and binding partners of a target protein. Furthermore, we describe how to confirm the function of the selected protein sequences by biochemical assays and bioinformatic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Alexander Valencia
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.
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7
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Lee JH, Song C, Kim DH, Park IH, Lee SG, Lee YS, Kim BG. Glutamine (Q)-peptide screening for transglutaminase reaction using mRNA display. Biotechnol Bioeng 2012; 110:353-62. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.24622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Revised: 05/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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8
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Abstract
mRNA display is a powerful in vitro selection technique that can be applied toward the identification of peptides or proteins with desired properties. The physical conjugation between a protein and its own RNA presents unique challenges in manipulating the displayed proteins in an RNase-free environment. This protocol outlines the generation of synthetic peptide and natural proteome libraries as well as the steps required for generation of mRNA-protein fusion libraries, in vitro selection, and regeneration of the selected sequences. The selection procedures for the identification of Ca(2+)-dependent, calmodulin-binding proteins from synthetic peptide and natural proteome libraries are presented.
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9
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Wang R, Cotten SW, Liu R. mRNA display using covalent coupling of mRNA to translated proteins. Methods Mol Biol 2012; 805:87-100. [PMID: 22094802 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-379-0_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
mRNA display is a powerful technique that allows for covalent coupling of a translated protein with its coding mRNA. The resulting conjugation between genotype and phenotype can be used for the efficient selection and identification of peptides or proteins with desired properties from an mRNA-displayed peptide or protein library with high diversity. This protocol outlines the principle of mRNA display and the detailed procedures for the synthesis of mRNA-protein fusions. Some special considerations for library construction, generation, and purification are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Wang
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy and Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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10
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Wang H, Liu R. Advantages of mRNA display selections over other selection techniques for investigation of protein-protein interactions. Expert Rev Proteomics 2011; 8:335-46. [PMID: 21679115 PMCID: PMC7103729 DOI: 10.1586/epr.11.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
mRNA display is a genotype–phenotype conjugation method that allows for amplification-based, iterative rounds of in vitro selection to be applied to peptides and proteins. mRNA display can be used to display both long natural protein and short synthetic peptide libraries with unusually high diversities for the investigation of protein–protein interactions. Here, we summarize the advantages of mRNA display by comparing it with other widely used peptide or protein-selection techniques, and discuss various applications of this technique in studying protein–protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7568, USA
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11
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Cotten SW, Zou J, Valencia CA, Liu R. Selection of proteins with desired properties from natural proteome libraries using mRNA display. Nat Protoc 2011; 6:1163-82. [DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2011.354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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12
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Seelig B. mRNA display for the selection and evolution of enzymes from in vitro-translated protein libraries. Nat Protoc 2011; 6:540-52. [DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2011.312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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13
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Zhang J, Williams BAR, Nilsson MT, Chaput JC. The evolvability of lead peptides from small library screens. Chem Commun (Camb) 2010; 46:7778-80. [PMID: 20830334 DOI: 10.1039/c0cc01475c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Very little is known about the evolvability of lead peptides that are isolated from small library screens. Here we begin to explore this question by comparing the directed evolution of two peptides previously isolated from a small library screen to new ligands generated de novo by in vitro selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglei Zhang
- Center for Evolutionary Medicine and Informatics at the Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5301, USA
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14
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Golynskiy MV, Seelig B. De novo enzymes: from computational design to mRNA display. Trends Biotechnol 2010; 28:340-5. [PMID: 20483496 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2010] [Revised: 04/09/2010] [Accepted: 04/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes offer cheap, environmentally responsible and highly efficient alternatives to chemical catalysts. The past two decades have seen a significant rise in the use of enzymes in industrial settings. Although many natural enzymes have been modified through protein engineering to better suit practical applications, these approaches are often insufficient. A key goal of enzyme engineers is to build enzymes de novo - or, 'from scratch'. To date, several technologies have been developed to achieve this goal: namely, computational design, catalytic antibodies and mRNA display. These methods rely on different principles, trading off rational protein design against an entirely combinatorial approach of directed evolution of vast protein libraries. The aim of this article is to review and compare these methods and their potential for generating truly de novo biocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misha V Golynskiy
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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15
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Juliano RL, Alam R, Dixit V, Kang HM. Cell-targeting and cell-penetrating peptides for delivery of therapeutic and imaging agents. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2010; 1:324-35. [PMID: 20049800 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This review will discuss the basic concepts concerning the use of cell-targeting peptides (CTPs) and cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) in the context of nanocarrier technology. It deals with the discovery and subsequent evolution of CTPs and CPPs, issues concerning their interactions with cells and their biodistribution in vivo, and their potential advantages and disadvantages as delivery agents. The article also briefly discusses several specific examples of the use of CTPs or CPPs to assist in the delivery of nanoparticles, liposomes, and other nanocarriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolph L Juliano
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA.
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16
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Di Niro R, Sulic AM, Mignone F, D'Angelo S, Bordoni R, Iacono M, Marzari R, Gaiotto T, Lavric M, Bradbury ARM, Biancone L, Zevin-Sonkin D, De Bellis G, Santoro C, Sblattero D. Rapid interactome profiling by massive sequencing. Nucleic Acids Res 2010; 38:e110. [PMID: 20144949 PMCID: PMC2875021 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkq052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a high-throughput protein expression and interaction analysis platform that combines cDNA phage display library selection and massive gene sequencing using the 454 platform. A phage display library of open reading frame (ORF) fragments was created from mRNA derived from different tissues. This was used to study the interaction network of the enzyme transglutaminase 2 (TG2), a multifunctional enzyme involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis, associated with many different pathologies. After two rounds of panning with TG2 we assayed the frequency of ORFs within the selected phage population using 454 sequencing. Ranking and analysis of more than 120 000 sequences allowed us to identify several potential interactors, which were subsequently confirmed in functional assays. Within the identified clones, three had been previously described as interacting proteins (fibronectin, SMOC1 and GSTO2), while all the others were new. When compared with standard systems, such as microtiter enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay, the method described here is dramatically faster and yields far more information about the interaction under study, allowing better characterization of complex systems. For example, in the case of fibronectin, it was possible to identify the specific domains involved in the interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Di Niro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
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17
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Abstract
In vitro genetic approaches are powerful solutions to the protein design problem. mRNA display is an in vitro selection technique enabling the design of peptide and protein ligands ranging from one to over 100 amino acids. Libraries containing more than 10 trillion unique sequences can be synthesized and sieved with exquisite control over binding stringency and specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry T Takahashi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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