Accelerated dephosphorylation of the beta2-adrenergic receptor by mutation of the C-terminal lysines: effects on ubiquitination, intracellular trafficking, and degradation

Chapter One - Ubiquitination and Deubiquitination of G Protein-Coupled Receptors

The seven-transmembrane containing G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of cell-surface receptors. Transmembrane signaling by GPCRs is fundamental to many aspects of physiology including vision, olfaction, cardiovascular, and reproductive functions as well as pain, behavior and psychomotor responses. The duration and magnitude of signal transduction is tightly controlled by a series of coordinated trafficking events that regulate the cell-surface expression of GPCRs at the plasma membrane. Moreover, the intracellular trafficking profiles of GPCRs can correlate with the signaling efficacy and efficiency triggered by the extracellular stimuli that activate GPCRs. Of the various molecular mechanisms that impart selectivity, sensitivity and strength of transmembrane signaling, ubiquitination of the receptor protein plays an important role because it defines both trafficking and signaling properties of the activated GPCR. Ubiquitination of proteins was originally discovered in the context of lysosome-independent degradation of cytosolic proteins by the 26S proteasome; however a large body of work suggests that ubiquitination also orchestrates the downregulation of membrane proteins in the lysosomes. In the case of GPCRs, such ubiquitin-mediated lysosomal degradation engenders long-term desensitization of transmembrane signaling. To date about 40 GPCRs are known to be ubiquitinated. For many GPCRs, ubiquitination plays a major role in postendocytic trafficking and sorting to the lysosomes. This chapter will focus on the patterns and functional roles of GPCR ubiquitination, and will describe various molecular mechanisms involved in GPCR ubiquitination.

Salmeterol Efficacy and Bias in the Activation and Kinase-Mediated Desensitization of β2-Adrenergic Receptors

Salmeterol is a long-acting β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR) agonist that is widely used as a bronchodilator for the treatment of persistent asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in conjunction with steroids. Previous studies demonstrated that salmeterol showed weak efficacy for activation of adenylyl cyclase; however, its efficacy in the complex desensitization of the β2AR remains poorly understood. In this work, we provide insights into the roles played by the G protein-coupled receptor kinase/arrestin and protein kinase A in salmeterol-mediated desensitization through bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) studies of liganded-β2AR binding to arrestin and through kinetic studies of cAMP turnover. First, BRET demonstrated a much reduced efficacy for salmeterol recruitment of arrestin to β2AR relative to isoproterenol. The ratio of BRETISO/BRETSALM after 5-minute stimulation was 20 and decreased to 5 after 35 minutes, reflecting a progressive decline in BRETISO and a stable BRETSALM. Second, to assess salmeterol efficacy for functional desensitization, we examined the kinetics of salmeterol-induced cAMP accumulation (0-30 minutes) in human airway smooth muscle cells in the presence and absence of phosphodiesterase inhibition. Analysis of shaping of cAMP turnover for both agonists demonstrated significant salmeterol desensitization, although it was reduced relative to isoproterenol. Using an isoproterenol rescue protocol after either short-term (10 minutes) or long-term (2 and 14 hours) salmeterol pretreatments, we found that salmeterol progressively depressed isoproterenol stimulation but did not prevent subsequent rescue by isoproterenol and additional isoproterenol-mediated desensitization. Our findings reveal a complex efficacy for functional desensitization, demonstrating that although salmeterol shows weak efficacy for adenylyl cyclase activation and G protein-coupled receptor kinase/arrestin-mediated desensitization, it acts as a strong agonist in highly amplified protein kinase A-mediated events.

Phosphorylation of the deubiquitinase USP20 by protein kinase A regulates post-endocytic trafficking of β2 adrenergic receptors to autophagosomes during physiological stress

Ubiquitination by the E3 ligase Nedd4 and deubiquitination by the deubiquitinases USP20 and USP33 have been shown to regulate the lysosomal trafficking and recycling of agonist-activated β2 adrenergic receptors (β2ARs). In this work, we demonstrate that, in cells subjected to physiological stress by nutrient starvation, agonist-activated ubiquitinated β2ARs traffic to autophagosomes to colocalize with the autophagy marker protein LC3-II. Furthermore, this trafficking is synchronized by dynamic posttranslational modifications of USP20 that, in turn, are induced in a β2AR-dependent manner. Upon β2AR activation, a specific isoform of the second messenger cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKAα) rapidly phosphorylates USP20 on serine 333 located in its unique insertion domain. This phosphorylation of USP20 correlates with a characteristic SDS-PAGE mobility shift of the protein, blocks its deubiquitinase activity, promotes its dissociation from the activated β2AR complex, and facilitates trafficking of the ubiquitinated β2AR to autophagosomes, which fuse with lysosomes to form autolysosomes where receptors are degraded. Dephosphorylation of USP20 has reciprocal effects and blocks trafficking of the β2AR to autophagosomes while promoting plasma membrane recycling of internalized β2ARs. Our findings reveal a dynamic regulation of USP20 by site-specific phosphorylation as well as the interdependence of signal transduction and trafficking pathways in balancing adrenergic stimulation and maintaining cellular homeostasis.

Minireview: ubiquitination-regulated G protein-coupled receptor signaling and trafficking

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest and most diverse superfamily of membrane proteins and mediate most cellular responses to hormones and neurotransmitters. Posttranslational modifications are considered the main regulators of all GPCRs. In addition to phosphorylation, glycosylation, and palmitoylation, increasing evidence as reviewed here reveals that ubiquitination also regulates the magnitude and temporospatial aspects of GPCR signaling. Posttranslational protein modification by ubiquitin is a key molecular mechanism governing proteins degradation. Ubiquitination mediates the covalent conjugation of ubiquitin, a highly conserved polypeptide of 76 amino acids, to protein substrates. This process is catalyzed by 3 enzymes acting in tandem: an E1, ubiquitin-activating enzyme; an E2, ubiquitin-carrying enzyme; and an E3, ubiquitin ligase. Ubiquitination is counteracted by deubiquitinating enzymes that deconjugate ubiquitin-modified proteins and rescue the substrate from proteasomal degradation. Although ubiquitination is known to target many GPCRs for lysosomal or proteasomal degradation, emerging findings define novel roles for the basal status of ubiquitination and for rapid deubiquitination and transubiquitination controlling cell surface expression and cellular responsiveness of some GPCRs. In this review, we highlight the classical and novel roles of ubiquitin in the regulation of GPCR function, signaling, and trafficking.

Distinct roles for β-arrestin2 and arrestin-domain-containing proteins in β2 adrenergic receptor trafficking

β-arrestin 1 and 2 (also known as arrestin 2 and 3) are homologous adaptor proteins that regulate seven-transmembrane receptor trafficking and signalling. Other proteins with predicted 'arrestin-like' structural domains but lacking sequence homology have been indicated to function like β-arrestin in receptor regulation. We demonstrate that β-arrestin2 is the primary adaptor that rapidly binds agonist-activated β(2) adrenergic receptors (β(2)ARs) and promotes clathrin-dependent internalization, E3 ligase Nedd4 recruitment and ubiquitin-dependent lysosomal degradation of the receptor. The arrestin-domain-containing (ARRDC) proteins 2, 3 and 4 are secondary adaptors recruited to internalized β(2)AR-Nedd4 complexes on endosomes and do not affect the adaptor roles of β-arrestin2. Rather, the role of ARRDC proteins is to traffic Nedd4-β(2)AR complexes to a subpopulation of early endosomes.

MARCH2 promotes endocytosis and lysosomal sorting of carvedilol-bound β(2)-adrenergic receptors

The β₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist carvedilol recruits MARCH2, a unique E3 ubiquitin ligase, to promote receptor endocytosis and lysosomal trafficking.

Lysosomal degradation of ubiquitinated β₂-adrenergic receptors (β₂ARs) serves as a major mechanism of long-term desensitization in response to prolonged agonist stimulation. Surprisingly, the βAR antagonist carvedilol also induced ubiquitination and lysosomal trafficking of both endogenously expressed β₂ARs in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and overexpressed Flag-β₂ARs in HEK-293 cells. Carvedilol prevented β₂AR recycling, blocked recruitment of Nedd4 E3 ligase, and promoted the dissociation of the deubiquitinases USP20 and USP33. Using proteomics approaches (liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry), we identified that the E3 ligase MARCH2 interacted with carvedilol-bound β₂AR. The association of MARCH2 with internalized β₂ARs was stabilized by carvedilol and did not involve β-arrestin. Small interfering RNA–mediated down-regulation of MARCH2 ablated carvedilol-induced ubiquitination, endocytosis, and degradation of endogenous β₂ARs in VSMCs. These findings strongly suggest that specific ligands recruit distinct E3 ligase machineries to activated cell surface receptors and direct their intracellular itinerary. In response to β blocker therapy with carvedilol, MARCH2 E3 ligase activity regulates cell surface β₂AR expression and, consequently, its signaling.

Ubiquitination in the first cytoplasmic loop of μ-opioid receptors reveals a hierarchical mechanism of lysosomal down-regulation

μ-Type opioid receptors (MORs) are members of the large seven-transmembrane receptor family which transduce the effects of both endogenous neuropeptides and clinically important opioid drugs. Prolonged activation of MORs promotes their proteolytic degradation by endocytic trafficking to lysosomes. This down-regulation process is known to contribute to homeostatic regulation of cellular opioid responsiveness, but mechanisms that mediate and control MOR down-regulation have not been defined. We show here that lysosomal down-regulation of MORs is ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport)-dependent and involves ubiquitin-promoted transfer of internalized MORs from the limiting endosome membrane to lumen. We also show that MOR down-regulation measured by conventional radioligand binding assay is determined specifically by ubiquitination in the first cytoplasmic loop. Surprisingly, we were unable to find any role of ubiquitination in determining whether internalized receptors recycle or are delivered to lysosomes. Instead, this decision is dictated specifically by the MOR C-tail and occurs irrespectively of the presence or absence of receptor ubiquitination. Our results support a hierarchical organization of discrete ubiquitin-independent and -dependent sorting operations, which function non-redundantly in the conserved down-regulation pathway to mediate precise endocytic control. Furthermore, they show that this hierarchical mechanism discriminates the endocytic regulation of naturally occurring MOR isoforms. Moreover, they are the first to reveal, we believe, for any seven-transmembrane receptor, a functional role of ubiquitination in the first cytoplasmic loop.

A tale of two sites: How ubiquitination of a G protein-coupled receptor is coupled to its lysosomal trafficking from distinct receptor domains

The β(2)-adrenergic receptor (β(2)AR) is a prototypical G(s)-coupled receptor belonging to the superfamily of seven transmembrane spanning heptahelical receptors (7TMRs or G protein-coupled receptors [GPCRs])-therapeutically the most diverse and accessible class of cell surface receptors. The classic pathway of β(2)AR signaling (Fig. 1) is triggered by activation of the heterotrimeric G protein G(s) by agonists (catecholamines-noradrenaline and adrenaline). This in turn activates adenylyl cyclase leading to the generation of second messenger signaling molecules (cyclic adenosine monophosphates, cAMP) which subsequently activate protein kinase A (PKA) as well as some ion channels, such as the class C type of L-type calcium channels, Ca(v)1.2.31 Here in we review how trafficking and signaling of the β(2)AR is regulated by the post-translational modification, ubiquitination.1.

Beta2-adrenergic receptor lysosomal trafficking is regulated by ubiquitination of lysyl residues in two distinct receptor domains

Agonist stimulation of the β2-adrenergic receptors (β2ARs) leads to their ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation. Inhibition of lysosomal proteases results in the stabilization and retention of internalized full-length β2ARs in the lysosomes, whereas inhibition of proteasomal proteases stabilizes newly synthesized β2ARs in nonlysosomal compartments. Additionally, a lysine-less β2AR (0K-β2AR) that is deficient in ubiquitination and degradation is not sorted to lysosomes unlike the WT β2AR, which is sorted to lysosomes. Thus, lysosomes are the primary sites for the degradation of agonist-activated, ubiquitinated β2ARs. To identify the specific site(s) of ubiquitination required for lysosomal sorting of the β2AR, four mutants, with lysines only in one intracellular domain, namely, loop 1, loop 2, loop 3, and carboxyl tail were generated. All of these receptor mutants coupled to G proteins, recruited β-arrestin2, and internalized just as the WT β2AR. However, only loop 3 and carboxyl tail β2ARs with lysines in the third intracellular loop or in the carboxyl tail were ubiquitinated and sorted for lysosomal degradation. As a complementary approach, we performed MS-based proteomic analyses to directly identify ubiquitination sites within the β2AR. We overexpressed and purified the β2AR from HEK-293 cells with or without prior agonist exposure and subjected trypsin-cleaved β2AR to LC-MS/MS analyses. We identified ubiquitinated lysines in the third intracellular loop (Lys-263 and Lys-270) and in the carboxyl tail (Lys-348, Lys-372, and Lys-375) of the β2AR. These findings introduce a new concept that two distinct domains in the β2AR are involved in ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation, contrary to the generalization that such regulatory mechanisms occur mainly at the carboxyl tails of GPCRs and other transmembrane receptors.

Importance of regions outside the cytoplasmic tail of G-protein-coupled receptors for phosphorylation and dephosphorylation

Two GPCRs (G-protein-coupled receptors), TRHR (thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor) and beta(2)AR (beta(2)-adrenergic receptor), are regulated in distinct manners. Following agonist binding, TRHR undergoes rapid phosphorylation attributable to GRKs (GPCR kinases); beta(2)AR is phosphorylated by both second messenger-activated PKA (protein kinase A) and GRKs with slower kinetics. TRHR co-internalizes with arrestin, whereas beta(2)AR recruits arrestin, but internalizes without it. Both receptors are dephosphorylated following agonist removal, but TRHR is dephosphorylated much more rapidly while it remains at the plasma membrane. We generated chimaeras swapping the C-terminal domains of these receptors to clarify the role of different receptor regions in phosphorylation, internalization and dephosphorylation. beta(2)AR with a TRHR cytoplasmic tail (beta(2)AR-TRHR) and TRHR with a beta(2)AR tail (TRHR-beta(2)AR) signalled to G-proteins normally. beta(2)AR-TRHR was phosphorylated well at the PKA site in the third intracellular loop, but poorly at GRK sites in the tail, whereas TRHR-beta(2)AR was phosphorylated strongly at GRK sites in the tail (Ser(355)/Ser(356) of the beta(2)AR). Both chimaeric receptors exhibited prolonged, but weak, association with arrestin at the plasma membrane, but high-affinity arrestin interactions and extensive co-internalization of receptor with arrestin required a phosphorylated TRHR tail. In contrast, swapping C-terminal domains did not change the rates of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation or the dependence of TRHR dephosphorylation on the length of agonist exposure. Thus the interactions of GPCRs with GRKs and phosphatases are determined not simply by the amino acid sequences of the substrates, but by regions outside the cytoplasmic tails.

Quantitative modeling of GRK-mediated beta2AR regulation

We developed a unified model of the GRK-mediated β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR) regulation that simultaneously accounts for six different biochemical measurements of the system obtained over a wide range of agonist concentrations. Using a single deterministic model we accounted for (1) GRK phosphorylation in response to various full and partial agonists; (2) dephosphorylation of the GRK site on the β2AR; (3) β2AR internalization; (4) recycling of the β2AR post isoproterenol treatment; (5) β2AR desensitization; and (6) β2AR resensitization. Simulations of our model show that plasma membrane dephosphorylation and recycling of the phosphorylated receptor are necessary to adequately account for the measured dephosphorylation kinetics. We further used the model to predict the consequences of (1) modifying rates such as GRK phosphorylation of the receptor, arrestin binding and dissociation from the receptor, and receptor dephosphorylation that should reflect effects of knockdowns and overexpressions of these components; and (2) varying concentration and frequency of agonist stimulation “seen” by the β2AR to better mimic hormonal, neurophysiological and pharmacological stimulations of the β2AR. Exploring the consequences of rapid pulsatile agonist stimulation, we found that although resensitization was rapid, the β2AR system retained the memory of the previous stimuli and desensitized faster and much more strongly in response to subsequent stimuli. The latent memory that we predict is due to slower membrane dephosphorylation, which allows for progressive accumulation of phosphorylated receptor on the surface. This primes the receptor for faster arrestin binding on subsequent agonist activation leading to a greater extent of desensitization. In summary, the model is unique in accounting for the behavior of the β2AR system across multiple types of biochemical measurements using a single set of experimentally constrained parameters. It also provides insight into how the signaling machinery can retain memory of prior stimulation long after near complete resensitization has been achieved.

The β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR) is involved in regulating many cellular processes such as smooth muscle relaxation in the airways and the vasculature. Drugs that activate the β2AR are used in treating asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), and prolonged use of these drugs leads to the loss of their effects. Thus, a dynamic model of how the β2AR responds to different drugs is fundamental to their rational use. In this study a consensus model of G protein coupled receptor kinase (GRK)-mediated receptor regulation was formulated based on quantitative measures of six processes involved in β2AR regulation. This model was then used to simulate the consequences of manipulating key rates associated with the GRK-mediated β2AR regulation, leading to predictions which will provide a useful framework for further tests and elaborations of the model in basic and clinical research.