Structure, stability, and folding of ribonuclease H1 from the moderately thermophilic Chlorobium tepidum: comparison with thermophilic and mesophilic homologues

Comparisons of Ribonuclease HI Homologs and Mutants Uncover a Multistate Model for Substrate Recognition

Ribonuclease HI (RNHI) nonspecifically cleaves the RNA strand of RNA:DNA hybrid duplexes in a myriad of biological processes. Several RNHI homologs contain an extended domain, termed the handle region, which is critical to substrate binding. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have suggested a kinetic model in which the handle region can exist in open (substrate-binding competent) or closed (substrate-binding incompetent) states in homologs containing arginine or lysine at position 88 (using sequence numbering of E. coli RNHI), while the handle region populates states intermediate between the open and closed conformers in homologs with asparagine at residue 88 [Stafford, K. A., et al., PLoS Comput. Biol. 2013, 9, 1-10]. NMR parameters characterizing handle region dynamics are highly correlated with enzymatic activity for RNHI homologs with two-state (open/closed) handle regions [Martin, J. A., et al., Biochemistry 2020, 59, 3201-3205]. The work presented herein shows that homologs containing asparagine 88 display distinct structural features compared with their counterparts containing arginine or lysine 88. Comparisons of RNHI homologs and site-directed mutants with asparagine 88 support a kinetic model for handle region dynamics that includes 12 unique transitions between eight conformations. Overall, these findings present an example of the structure-function relationships of enzymes and spotlight the use of NMR spectroscopy and MD simulations in uncovering fine details of conformational preferences.

HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase/Integrase Dual Inhibitors: A Review of Recent Advances and Structure-activity Relationship Studies

The significant threat to humanity is HIV infection, and it is uncertain whether a definitive treatment or a safe HIV vaccine is. HIV-1 is continually evolving and resistant to commonly used HIV-resistant medications, presenting significant obstacles to HIV infection management. The drug resistance adds to the need for new anti-HIV drugs; it chooses ingenious approaches to fight the emerging virus. Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), a multi-target approach for specific therapies, has proved effective in AIDS treatment. Therefore, it is a dynamic system with high prescription tension, increased risk of medication reactions, and adverse effects, leading to poor compliance with patients. In the HIV-1 lifecycle, two critical enzymes with high structural and functional analogies are reverse transcriptase (RT) and integrase (IN), which can be interpreted as druggable targets for modern dual-purpose inhibitors. Designed multifunctional ligand (DML) is a new technique that recruited many targets to be achieved by one chemical individual. A single chemical entity that acts for multiple purposes can be much more successful than a complex multidrug program. The production of these multifunctional ligands as antiretroviral drugs is valued with the advantage that the viral-replication process may end in two or more phases. This analysis will discuss the RT-IN dual-inhibitory scaffolds' developments documented so far.

Alanine to serine substitutions drive thermal adaptation in a psychrophilic diatom cytochrome c6

In this study, we investigate the thermodynamic mechanisms by which electron transfer proteins adapt to environmental temperature by directly comparing the redox properties and folding stability of a psychrophilic cytochrome c and a mesophilic homolog. Our model system consists of two cytochrome c₆ proteins from diatoms: one adapted specifically to polar environments, the other adapted generally to surface ocean environments. Direct electrochemistry shows that the midpoint potential for the mesophilic homolog is slightly higher at all temperatures measured. Cytochrome c₆ from the psychrophilic diatom unfolds with a melting temperature 10.4 °C lower than the homologous mesophilic cytochrome c₆. Changes in free energy upon unfolding are identical, within error, for the psychrophilic and mesophilic protein; however, the chemical unfolding transition of the psychrophilic cytochrome c₆ is more cooperative than for the mesophilic cytochrome c₆. Substituting alanine residues found in the mesophile with serine found in corresponding positions of the psychrophile demonstrates that burial of the polar serine both decreases the thermal stability and decreases the midpoint potential. The mutagenesis data, combined with differences in the m-value of chemical denaturation, suggest that differences in solvent accessibility of the hydrophobic core underlie the adaptation of cytochrome c₆ to differing environmental temperature.

RNases H: Structure and mechanism

RNases H are a family of endonucleases that hydrolyze RNA residues in various nucleic acids. These enzymes are present in all branches of life, and their counterpart domains are also found in reverse transcriptases (RTs) from retroviruses and retroelements. RNases H are divided into two main classes (RNases H1 and H2 or type 1 and type 2 enzymes) with common structural features of the catalytic domain but different range of substrates for enzymatic cleavage. Additionally, a third class is found in some Archaea and bacteria. Besides distinct cellular functions specific for each type of RNases H, this family of proteins is generally involved in the maintenance of genome stability with overlapping and cooperative role in removal of R-loops thus preventing their accumulation. Extensive biochemical and structural studies of RNases H provided not only a comprehensive and complete picture of their mechanism but also revealed key basic principles of nucleic acid recognition and processing. RNase H1 is present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes and cleaves RNA in RNA/DNA hybrids. Its main function is hybrid removal, notably in the context of R-loops. RNase H2, which is also present in all branches of life, can play a similar role but it also has a specialized function in the cleavage of single ribonucleotides embedded in the DNA. RNase H3 is present in Archaea and bacteria and is closely related to RNase H2 in sequence and structure but has RNase H1-like biochemical properties. This review summarizes the mechanisms of substrate recognition and enzymatic cleavage by different classes of RNases H with particular insights into structural features of nucleic acid binding, specificity towards RNA and/or DNA strands and catalysis.

Tracing a protein's folding pathway over evolutionary time using ancestral sequence reconstruction and hydrogen exchange

The conformations populated during protein folding have been studied for decades; yet, their evolutionary importance remains largely unexplored. Ancestral sequence reconstruction allows access to proteins across evolutionary time, and new methods such as pulsed-labeling hydrogen exchange coupled with mass spectrometry allow determination of folding intermediate structures at near amino-acid resolution. Here, we combine these techniques to monitor the folding of the ribonuclease H family along the evolutionary lineages of T. thermophilus and E. coli RNase H. All homologs and ancestral proteins studied populate a similar folding intermediate despite being separated by billions of years of evolution. Even though this conformation is conserved, the pathway leading to it has diverged over evolutionary time, and rational mutations can alter this trajectory. Our results demonstrate that evolutionary processes can affect the energy landscape to preserve or alter specific features of a protein’s folding pathway.

Glutamine Hydrolysis by Imidazole Glycerol Phosphate Synthase Displays Temperature Dependent Allosteric Activation

The enzyme imidazole glycerol phosphate synthase (IGPS) is a model for studies of long-range allosteric regulation in enzymes. Binding of the allosteric effector ligand N'-[5'-phosphoribulosyl)formimino]-5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-ribonucleotide (PRFAR) stimulates millisecond (ms) timescale motions in IGPS that enhance its catalytic function. We studied the effect of temperature on these critical conformational motions and the catalytic mechanism of IGPS from the hyperthermophile Thermatoga maritima in an effort to understand temperature-dependent allostery. Enzyme kinetic and NMR dynamics measurements show that apo and PRFAR-activated IGPS respond differently to changes in temperature. Multiple-quantum Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) relaxation dispersion experiments performed at 303, 323, and 343 K (30, 50, and 70°C) reveal that millisecond flexibility is enhanced to a higher degree in apo IGPS than in the PRFAR-bound enzyme as the sample temperature is raised. We find that the flexibility of the apo enzyme is nearly identical to that of its PRFAR activated state at 343 K, whereas conformational motions are considerably different between these two forms of the enzyme at room temperature. Arrhenius analyses of these flexible sites show a varied range of activation energies that loosely correlate to allosteric communities identified by computational methods and reflect local changes in dynamics that may facilitate conformational sampling of the active conformation. In addition, kinetic assays indicate that allosteric activation by PRFAR decreases to 65-fold at 343 K, compared to 4,200-fold at 303 K, which mirrors the decreased effect of PRFAR on ms motions relative to the unactivated enzyme. These studies indicate that at the growth temperature of T. maritima, PFRAR is a weaker allosteric activator than it is at room temperature and illustrate that the allosteric mechanism of IGPS is temperature dependent.

Thermostability of Enzymes from Molecular Dynamics Simulations

Thermodynamic stability is a central requirement for protein function, and one goal of protein engineering is improvement of stability, particularly for applications in biotechnology. Herein, molecular dynamics simulations are used to predict in vitro thermostability of members of the bacterial ribonuclease HI (RNase H) family of endonucleases. The temperature dependence of the generalized order parameter, S, for four RNase H homologues, from psychrotrophic, mesophilic, and thermophilic organisms, is highly correlated with experimentally determined melting temperatures and with calculated free energies of folding at the midpoint temperature of the simulations. This study provides an approach for in silico mutational screens to improve thermostability of biologically and industrially relevant enzymes.

Structural origins of misfolding propensity in the platelet adhesive von Willebrand factor A1 domain

The von Willebrand factor (VWF) A1 and A3 domains are structurally isomorphic yet exhibit distinct mechanisms of unfolding. The A1 domain, responsible for platelet adhesion to VWF in hemostasis, unfolds through a molten globule intermediate in an apparent three-state mechanism, while A3 unfolds by a classical two-state mechanism. Inspection of the sequences or structures alone does not elucidate the source of this thermodynamic conundrum; however, the three-state character of the A1 domain suggests that it has more than one cooperative substructure yielding two separate unfolding transitions not present in A3. We investigate the extent to which structural elements contributing to intermediate conformations can be identified using a residue-specific implementation of the structure-energy-equivalence-of-domains algorithm (SEED), which parses proteins of known structure into their constituent thermodynamically cooperative components using protein-group-specific, transfer free energies. The structural elements computed to contribute to the non-two-state character coincide with regions where Von Willebrand disease mutations induce misfolded molten globule conformations of the A1 domain. This suggests a mechanism for the regulation of rheological platelet adhesion to A1 based on cooperative flexibility of the α2 and α3 helices flanking the platelet GPIbα receptor binding interface.

Structural features determining thermal adaptation of esterases

The adaptation of microorganisms to extreme living temperatures requires the evolution of enzymes with a high catalytic efficiency under these conditions. Such extremophilic enzymes represent valuable tools to study the relationship between protein stability, dynamics and function. Nevertheless, the multiple effects of temperature on the structure and function of enzymes are still poorly understood at the molecular level. Our analysis of four homologous esterases isolated from bacteria living at temperatures ranging from 10°C to 70°C suggested an adaptation route for the modulation of protein thermal properties through the optimization of local flexibility at the protein surface. While the biochemical properties of the recombinant esterases are conserved, their thermal properties have evolved to resemble those of the respective bacterial habitats. Molecular dynamics simulations at temperatures around the optimal temperatures for enzyme catalysis revealed temperature-dependent flexibility of four surface-exposed loops. While the flexibility of some loops increased with raising the temperature and decreased with lowering the temperature, as expected for those loops contributing to the protein stability, other loops showed an increment of flexibility upon lowering and raising the temperature. Preserved flexibility in these regions seems to be important for proper enzyme function. The structural differences of these four loops, distant from the active site, are substantially larger than for the overall protein structure, indicating that amino acid exchanges within these loops occurred more frequently thereby allowing the bacteria to tune atomic interactions for different temperature requirements without interfering with the overall enzyme function.

Thermodynamic system drift in protein evolution

Tracking the evolution of thermostability in resurrected ancestors of a heat-tolerant extremophile protein and its less heat tolerant Escherichia coli homologue shows how thermostability has probably explored different mechanisms of protein stabilization over evolutionary time.

Proteins from thermophiles are generally more thermostable than their mesophilic homologs, but little is known about the evolutionary process driving these differences. Here we attempt to understand how the diverse thermostabilities of bacterial ribonuclease H1 (RNH) proteins evolved. RNH proteins from Thermus thermophilus (ttRNH) and Escherichia coli (ecRNH) share similar structures but differ in melting temperature (T_m) by 20°C. ttRNH's greater stability is caused in part by the presence of residual structure in the unfolded state, which results in a low heat capacity of unfolding (ΔC_p) relative to ecRNH. We first characterized RNH proteins from a variety of extant bacteria and found that T_m correlates with the species' growth temperatures, consistent with environmental selection for stability. We then used ancestral sequence reconstruction to statistically infer evolutionary intermediates along lineages leading to ecRNH and ttRNH from their common ancestor, which existed approximately 3 billion years ago. Finally, we synthesized and experimentally characterized these intermediates. The shared ancestor has a melting temperature between those of ttRNH and ecRNH; the T_ms of intermediate ancestors along the ttRNH lineage increased gradually over time, while the ecRNH lineage exhibited an abrupt drop in T_m followed by relatively little change. To determine whether the underlying mechanisms for thermostability correlate with the changes in T_m, we measured the thermodynamic basis for stabilization—ΔC_p and other thermodynamic parameters—for each of the ancestors. We observed that, while the T_m changes smoothly, the mechanistic basis for stability fluctuates over evolutionary time. Thus, even while overall stability appears to be strongly driven by selection, the proteins explored a wide variety of mechanisms of stabilization, a phenomenon we call “thermodynamic system drift.” This suggests that even on lineages with strong selection to increase stability, proteins have wide latitude to explore sequence space, generating biophysical diversity and potentially opening new evolutionary pathways.

The biophysical properties of proteins must adjust to accommodate environmental temperatures because of the narrow range over which any given protein sequence can remain folded and functional. We compared the evolution of homologous bacterial enzymes (ribonucleases H1) from two lineages: one from Escherichia coli, which live at moderate temperatures, the other from Thermus thermophilus, which live at extremely high temperatures. Our aim was to investigate how these structurally homologous proteins can have such different thermostabilities, unfolding at temperatures that are 20°C apart. We used bioinformatics to reconstruct the sequences of ancestral proteins along each lineage, synthesized the proteins in the lab, and experimentally traced the evolution of ribonuclease H1 stability. While thermostability appears to have been strongly shaped by selection, the biophysical mechanisms used to tune protein stability appear to have varied throughout evolutionary history; this suggests that proteins have wide latitude to explore different mechanisms of stabilization, generating biophysical diversity and opening up new evolutionary pathways.

Evidence from molecular dynamics simulations of conformational preorganization in the ribonuclease H active site

Ribonuclease H1 (RNase H) enzymes are well-conserved endonucleases that are present in all domains of life and are particularly important in the life cycle of retroviruses as domains within reverse transcriptase. Despite extensive study, especially of the E. coli homolog, the interaction of the highly negatively charged active site with catalytically required magnesium ions remains poorly understood. In this work, we describe molecular dynamics simulations of the E. coli homolog in complex with magnesium ions, as well as simulations of other homologs in their apo states. Collectively, these results suggest that the active site is highly rigid in the apo state of all homologs studied and is conformationally preorganized to favor the binding of a magnesium ion. Notably, representatives of bacterial, eukaryotic, and retroviral RNases H all exhibit similar active-site rigidity, suggesting that this dynamic feature is only subtly modulated by amino acid sequence and is primarily imposed by the distinctive RNase H protein fold.

Thermal adaptation of conformational dynamics in ribonuclease H

The relationship between inherent internal conformational processes and enzymatic activity or thermodynamic stability of proteins has proven difficult to characterize. The study of homologous proteins with differing thermostabilities offers an especially useful approach for understanding the functional aspects of conformational dynamics. In particular, ribonuclease HI (RNase H), an 18 kD globular protein that hydrolyzes the RNA strand of RNA:DNA hybrid substrates, has been extensively studied by NMR spectroscopy to characterize the differences in dynamics between homologs from the mesophilic organism E. coli and the thermophilic organism T. thermophilus. Herein, molecular dynamics simulations are reported for five homologous RNase H proteins of varying thermostabilities and enzymatic activities from organisms of markedly different preferred growth temperatures. For the E. coli and T. thermophilus proteins, strong agreement is obtained between simulated and experimental values for NMR order parameters and for dynamically averaged chemical shifts, suggesting that these simulations can be a productive platform for predicting the effects of individual amino acid residues on dynamic behavior. Analyses of the simulations reveal that a single residue differentiates between two different and otherwise conserved dynamic processes in a region of the protein known to form part of the substrate-binding interface. Additional key residues within these two categories are identified through the temperature-dependence of these conformational processes.

The relationship between enzymatic activity and protein stability has long been a difficult problem in the study of protein biochemistry. Enzymes may undergo structural changes in order to bind substrates, catalyze chemical reactions, and release products, but flexibility often is inversely correlated with thermodynamic stability. Proteins from organisms that are adapted to high temperature can be both more rigid and less active at ambient temperature than their homologs from organisms that grow at lower temperatures. For this reason, studying homologous pairs of proteins from organisms adapted to different thermal environments is a productive way to identify functionally important motions. In this work we perform comparative analyses of molecular dynamics simulations for five ribonuclease H proteins of varying thermal stabilities, isolated from organisms that grow in varying thermal environments. We identify two different mechanisms of motion in a region of the protein that interacts with substrate molecules, suggesting at least two forms of thermal adaptation in this protein family.

The structure of Aquifex aeolicus ribosomal protein S8 reveals a unique subdomain that contributes to an extremely tight association with 16S rRNA

The assembly of ribonucleoprotein complexes occurs under a broad range of conditions, but the principles that promote assembly and allow function at high temperature are poorly understood. The ribosomal protein S8 from Aquifex aeolicus (AS8) is unique in that there is a 41-residue insertion in the consensus S8 sequence. In addition, AS8 exhibits an unusually high affinity for the 16S ribosomal RNA, characterized by a picomolar dissociation constant that is approximately 26,000-fold tighter than the equivalent interaction from Escherichia coli. Deletion analysis demonstrated that binding to the minimal site on helix 21 occurred at the same nanomolar affinity found for other bacterial species. The additional affinity required the presence of a three-helix junction between helices 20, 21, and 22. The crystal structure of AS8 was solved, revealing the helix-loop-helix geometry of the unique AS8 insertion region, while the core of the molecule is conserved with known S8 structures. The AS8 structure was modeled onto the structure of the 30S ribosomal subunit from E. coli, suggesting the possibility that the unique subdomain provides additional backbone and side-chain contacts between the protein and an unpaired base within the three-way junction of helices 20, 21, and 22. Point mutations in the protein insertion subdomain resulted in a significantly reduced RNA binding affinity with respect to wild-type AS8. These results indicate that the AS8-specific subdomain provides additional interactions with the three-way junction that contribute to the extremely tight binding to ribosomal RNA.

How do thermophilic proteins and proteomes withstand high temperature?

We attempt to understand the origin of enhanced stability in thermophilic proteins by analyzing thermodynamic data for 116 proteins, the largest data set achieved to date. We compute changes in entropy and enthalpy at the convergence temperature where different driving forces are maximally decoupled, in contrast to the majority of previous studies that were performed at the melting temperature. We find, on average, that the gain in enthalpy upon folding is lower in thermophiles than in mesophiles, whereas the loss in entropy upon folding is higher in mesophiles than in thermophiles. This implies that entropic stabilization may be responsible for the high melting temperature, and hints at residual structure or compactness of the denatured state in thermophiles. We find a similar trend by analyzing a homologous set of proteins classified based only on the optimum growth temperature of the organisms from which they were extracted. We find that the folding free energy at the temperature of maximal stability is significantly more favorable in thermophiles than in mesophiles, whereas the maximal stability temperature itself is similar between these two classes. Furthermore, we extend the thermodynamic analysis to model the entire proteome. The results explain the high optimal growth temperature in thermophilic organisms and are in excellent quantitative agreement with full thermal growth rate data obtained in a dozen thermophilic and mesophilic organisms.

Identification of residual structure in the unfolded state of ribonuclease H1 from the moderately thermophilic Chlorobium tepidum: comparison with thermophilic and mesophilic homologues

Ribonucleases H from organisms that grow at different temperatures demonstrate a variable change in heat capacity upon unfolding (DeltaC degrees (P)) [Ratcliff, K., et al. (2009) Biochemistry 48, 5890-5898]. This DeltaC degrees (P) has been shown to correlate with a tolerance to higher temperatures and residual structure in the unfolded state of the thermophilic proteins. In the RNase H from Thermus thermophilus, the low DeltaC degrees (P) has been shown to arise from the same region as the folding core of the protein, and mutagenic studies have shown that loss of a hydrophobic residue in this region can disrupt this residual unfolded state structure and result in a return to a more mesophile-like DeltaC degrees (P) [Robic, S., et al. (2002) Protein Sci. 11, 381-389; Robic, S., et al. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 11345-11349]. To understand further how residual structure in the unfolded state is encoded in the sequences of these thermophilic proteins, we subjected the RNase H from Chlorobium tepidum to similar studies. Analysis of new chimeric proteins reveals that like T. thermophilus RNase H, the folding core of C. tepidum RNase H plays an important role in the unfolded state of this protein. Mutagenesis studies, based on both a computational investigation of the hydrophobic networks in the core region and comparisons with similar studies on T. thermophilus RNase H, identify new residues involved in this residual structure and suggest that the residual structure in the unfolded state of C. tepidum RNase H is more restricted than that of T. thermophilus. We conclude that while the folding core region determines the thermophilic-like behavior of this family of proteins, the residue-specific details vary.

Evolution and thermodynamics of the slow unfolding of hyperstable monomeric proteins

BACKGROUND

The unfolding speed of some hyperthermophilic proteins is dramatically lower than that of their mesostable homologs. Ribonuclease HII from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakaraensis (Tk-RNase HII) is stabilized by its remarkably slow unfolding rate, whereas RNase HI from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus thermophilus (Tt-RNase HI) unfolds rapidly, comparable with to that of RNase HI from Escherichia coli (Ec-RNase HI).

RESULTS

To clarify whether the difference in the unfolding rate is due to differences in the types of RNase H or differences in proteins from archaea and bacteria, we examined the equilibrium stability and unfolding reaction of RNases HII from the hyperthermophilic bacteria Thermotoga maritima (Tm-RNase HII) and Aquifex aeolicus (Aa-RNase HII) and RNase HI from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus tokodaii (Sto-RNase HI). These proteins from hyperthermophiles are more stable than Ec-RNase HI over all the temperature ranges examined. The observed unfolding speeds of all hyperstable proteins at the different denaturant concentrations studied are much lower than those of Ec-RNase HI, which is in accordance with the familiar slow unfolding of hyperstable proteins. However, the unfolding rate constants of these RNases H in water are dispersed, and the unfolding rate constant of thermophilic archaeal proteins is lower than that of thermophilic bacterial proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the nature of slow unfolding of thermophilic proteins is determined by the evolutionary history of the organisms involved. The unfolding rate constants in water are related to the amount of buried hydrophobic residues in the tertiary structure.

What lessons can be learned from studying the folding of homologous proteins?

The studies of the folding of structurally related proteins have proved to be a very important tool for investigating protein folding. Here we review some of the insights that have been gained from such studies. Our highlighted studies show just how such an investigation should be designed and emphasise the importance of the synergy between experiment and theory. We also stress the importance of choosing the right system carefully, exploiting the excellent structural and sequence databases at our disposal.

Urea denatured state ensembles contain extensive secondary structure that is increased in hydrophobic proteins

The goal of this article is to gain a better understanding of the denatured state ensemble (DSE) of proteins through an experimental and computational study of their denaturation by urea. Proteins unfold to different extents in urea and the most hydrophobic proteins have the most compact DSE and contain almost as much secondary structure as folded proteins. Proteins that unfold to the greatest extent near pH 7 still contain substantial amounts of secondary structure. At low pH, the DSE expands due to charge-charge interactions and when the net charge per residue is high, most of the secondary structure is disrupted. The proteins in the DSE appear to contain substantial amounts of polyproline II conformation at high urea concentrations. In all cases considered, including staph nuclease, the extent of unfolding by urea can be accounted for using the data and approach developed in the laboratory of Wayne Bolen (Auton et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci 2007; 104:15317-15323).