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Cerna-Chávez E, Rodríguez-Rodríguez JF, García-Conde KB, Ochoa-Fuentes YM. Potential of Streptomyces avermitilis: A Review on Avermectin Production and Its Biocidal Effect. Metabolites 2024; 14:374. [PMID: 39057697 PMCID: PMC11278826 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14070374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Secondary metabolites produced by the fermentation of Streptomyces avermitilis bacterium are powerful antiparasitic agents used in animal health, agriculture and human infection treatments. Avermectin is a macrocyclic lactone with four structural components (A1, A2, B1, B2), each of them containing a major and a minor subcomponent, out of which avermectin B1a is the most effective parasitic control compound. Avermectin B1a produces two homologue avermectins (B1 and B2) that have been used in agriculture as pesticides and antiparasitic agents, since 1985. It has a great affinity with the Cl-channels of the glutamate receptor, allowing the constant flow of Cl- ions into the nerve cells, causing a phenomenon of hyperpolarization causing death by flaccid paralysis. The purpose of this work was to gather information on the production of avermectins and their biocidal effects, with special emphasis on their role in the control of pests and phytopathogenic diseases. The literature showed that S. avermitilis is an important producer of macrocyclic lactones with biocidal properties. In addition, avermectin contributes to the control of ectoparasites and endoparasites in human health care, veterinary medicine and agriculture. Importantly, avermectin is a compound that is harmless to the host (no side effects), non-target organisms and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Cerna-Chávez
- Departamento de Parasitología, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Calzada Antonio Narro 1923, Saltillo 25315, Coahuila, Mexico;
| | - José Francisco Rodríguez-Rodríguez
- Estudiante de Postgrado en Ciencias en Parasitología Agrícola, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonia Narro, Calzada Antonio Narro 1923, Saltillo 25315, Coahuila, Mexico;
| | - Karen Berenice García-Conde
- Estudiante de Postgrado en Ciencias en Parasitología Agrícola, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonia Narro, Calzada Antonio Narro 1923, Saltillo 25315, Coahuila, Mexico;
| | - Yisa María Ochoa-Fuentes
- Departamento de Parasitología, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Calzada Antonio Narro 1923, Saltillo 25315, Coahuila, Mexico;
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2
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A Abdelhakim I, Futamura Y, Asami Y, Hanaki H, Kito N, Masuda S, Shibata A, Muranaka A, Koshino H, Shirasu K, Osada H, Ishikawa J, Takahashi S. Expression of Syo_1.56 SARP Regulator Unveils Potent Elasnin Derivatives with Antibacterial Activity. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2024; 87:1459-1470. [PMID: 38652684 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.4c00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Actinomycetes are prolific producers of natural products, particularly antibiotics. However, a significant proportion of its biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) remain silent under typical laboratory conditions. This limits the effectiveness of conventional isolation methods for the discovery of novel natural products. Genetic interventions targeting the activation of silent gene clusters are necessary to address this challenge. Streptomyces antibiotic regulatory proteins (SARPs) act as cluster-specific activators and can be used to target silent BGCs for the discovery of new antibiotics. In this study, the expression of a previously uncharacterized SARP protein, Syo_1.56, in Streptomyces sp. RK18-A0406 significantly enhanced the production of known antimycins and led to the discovery of 12 elasnins (1-12), 10 of which were novel. The absolute stereochemistry of elasnin A1 was assigned for the first time to be 6S. Unexpectedly, Syo_1.56 seems to function as a pleiotropic rather than cluster-specific SARP regulator, with the capability of co-regulating two distinct biosynthetic pathways, simultaneously. All isolated elasnins were active against wild-type and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with IC50 values of 0.5-20 μg/mL, some of which (elasnins A1, B2, and C1 and proelasnins A1, and C1) demonstrated moderate to strong antimalarial activities against Plasmodium falciparum 3D7. Elasnins A1, B3, and C1 also showed in vitro inhibition of the metallo-β-lactamase responsible for the development of highly antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Islam A Abdelhakim
- Natural Product Biosynthesis Research Unit, RIKEN CSRS, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Yushi Futamura
- Chemical Resource Development Research Unit and Drug Discovery Chemical Bank Unit, RIKEN CSRS, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Asami
- O̅mura Satoshi Memorial Institute, Kitasato University, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Hideaki Hanaki
- O̅mura Satoshi Memorial Institute, Kitasato University, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Naoko Kito
- Natural Product Biosynthesis Research Unit, RIKEN CSRS, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Sachiko Masuda
- Plant Immunity Research Group, RIKEN CSRS, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan
| | - Arisa Shibata
- Plant Immunity Research Group, RIKEN CSRS, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan
| | - Atsuya Muranaka
- Molecular Structure Characterization Unit, RIKEN CSRS, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Koshino
- Molecular Structure Characterization Unit, RIKEN CSRS, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Ken Shirasu
- Plant Immunity Research Group, RIKEN CSRS, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Osada
- Chemical Resource Development Research Unit and Drug Discovery Chemical Bank Unit, RIKEN CSRS, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Jun Ishikawa
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Shunji Takahashi
- Natural Product Biosynthesis Research Unit, RIKEN CSRS, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
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Tarasova EV, Luchnikova NA, Grishko VV, Ivshina IB. Actinomycetes as Producers of Biologically Active Terpenoids: Current Trends and Patents. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:872. [PMID: 37375819 DOI: 10.3390/ph16060872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Terpenes and their derivatives (terpenoids and meroterpenoids, in particular) constitute the largest class of natural compounds, which have valuable biological activities and are promising therapeutic agents. The present review assesses the biosynthetic capabilities of actinomycetes to produce various terpene derivatives; reports the main methodological approaches to searching for new terpenes and their derivatives; identifies the most active terpene producers among actinomycetes; and describes the chemical diversity and biological properties of the obtained compounds. Among terpene derivatives isolated from actinomycetes, compounds with pronounced antifungal, antiviral, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and other effects were determined. Actinomycete-produced terpenoids and meroterpenoids with high antimicrobial activity are of interest as a source of novel antibiotics effective against drug-resistant pathogenic bacteria. Most of the discovered terpene derivatives are produced by the genus Streptomyces; however, recent publications have reported terpene biosynthesis by members of the genera Actinomadura, Allokutzneria, Amycolatopsis, Kitasatosporia, Micromonospora, Nocardiopsis, Salinispora, Verrucosispora, etc. It should be noted that the use of genetically modified actinomycetes is an effective tool for studying and regulating terpenes, as well as increasing productivity of terpene biosynthesis in comparison with native producers. The review includes research articles on terpene biosynthesis by Actinomycetes between 2000 and 2022, and a patent analysis in this area shows current trends and actual research directions in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina V Tarasova
- Perm Federal Research Center, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 13A Lenina Str., 614990 Perm, Russia
| | - Natalia A Luchnikova
- Perm Federal Research Center, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 13A Lenina Str., 614990 Perm, Russia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Perm State University, 15 Bukirev Str., 614990 Perm, Russia
| | - Victoria V Grishko
- Perm Federal Research Center, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 13A Lenina Str., 614990 Perm, Russia
| | - Irina B Ivshina
- Perm Federal Research Center, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 13A Lenina Str., 614990 Perm, Russia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Perm State University, 15 Bukirev Str., 614990 Perm, Russia
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Danaeifar M, Mazlomi MA. Combinatorial biosynthesis: playing chess with the metabolism. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2023; 25:171-190. [PMID: 35435779 DOI: 10.1080/10286020.2022.2065265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Secondary metabolites are a group of natural products that produced by bacteria, fungi and plants. Many applications of these compounds from medicine to industry have been discovered. However, some changes in their structure and biosynthesis mechanism are necessary for their properties to be more suitable and also for their production to be profitable. The main and most useful method to achieve this goal is combinatorial biosynthesis. This technique uses the multi-unit essence of the secondary metabolites biosynthetic enzymes to make changes in their order, structure and also the organism that produces them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Danaeifar
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1416753955, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Mazlomi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1416753955, Iran
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Kong L, Deng Z, You D. Chemistry and biosynthesis of bacterial polycyclic xanthone natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:2057-2095. [PMID: 36083257 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00046f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Covering: up to the end of 2021Bacterial polycyclic xanthone natural products (BPXNPs) are a growing family of natural xanthones featuring a pentangular architecture with various modifications to the tricyclic xanthone chromophore. Their structural diversities and various activities have fueled biosynthetic and chemical synthetic studies. Moreover, their more potent activities than the clinically used drugs make them potential candidates for the treatment of diseases. Future unraveling of structure activity relationships (SARs) will provide new options for the (bio)-synthesis of drug analogues with higher activities. This review summarizes the isolation, structural elucidation and biological activities and more importantly, the recent strategies for the microbial biosynthesis and chemical synthesis of BPXNPs. Regarding their biosynthesis, we discuss the recent progress in enzymes that synthesize tricyclic xanthone, the protein candidates for structural moieties (methylene dioxygen bridge and nitrogen heterocycle), tailoring enzymes for methylation and halogenation. The chemical synthesis part summarizes the recent methodology for the division synthesis and coupling construction of achiral molecular skeletons. Ultimately, perspectives on the biosynthetic study of BPXNPs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingxin Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Zixin Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Delin You
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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6
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Alvigini L, Gran‐Scheuch A, Guo Y, Trajkovic M, Saifuddin M, Fraaije MW, Mattevi A. Discovery, Biocatalytic Exploration and Structural Analysis of a 4-Ethylphenol Oxidase from Gulosibacter chungangensis. Chembiochem 2021; 22:3225-3233. [PMID: 34523783 PMCID: PMC9293466 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The vanillyl-alcohol oxidase (VAO) family is a rich source of biocatalysts for the oxidative bioconversion of phenolic compounds. Through genome mining and sequence comparisons, we found that several family members lack a generally conserved catalytic aspartate. This finding led us to study a VAO-homolog featuring a glutamate residue in place of the common aspartate. This 4-ethylphenol oxidase from Gulosibacter chungangensis (Gc4EO) shares 42 % sequence identity with VAO from Penicillium simplicissimum, contains the same 8α-N3 -histidyl-bound FAD and uses oxygen as electron acceptor. However, Gc4EO features a distinct substrate scope and product specificity as it is primarily effective in the dehydrogenation of para-substituted phenols with little generation of hydroxylated products. The three-dimensional structure shows that the characteristic glutamate side chain creates a closely packed environment that may limit water accessibility and thereby protect from hydroxylation. With its high thermal stability, well defined structural properties and high expression yields, Gc4EO may become a catalyst of choice for the specific dehydrogenation of phenolic compounds bearing small substituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Alvigini
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”University of PaviaVia Ferrata 927100PaviaItaly
| | - Alejandro Gran‐Scheuch
- Molecular Enzymology GroupUniversity of GroningenNijenborgh 49747 AGGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Yiming Guo
- Molecular Enzymology GroupUniversity of GroningenNijenborgh 49747 AGGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Milos Trajkovic
- Molecular Enzymology GroupUniversity of GroningenNijenborgh 49747 AGGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Mohammad Saifuddin
- Molecular Enzymology GroupUniversity of GroningenNijenborgh 49747 AGGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Marco W. Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology GroupUniversity of GroningenNijenborgh 49747 AGGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Andrea Mattevi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”University of PaviaVia Ferrata 927100PaviaItaly
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Abstract
Covering: up to mid-2020 Terpenoids, also called isoprenoids, are the largest and most structurally diverse family of natural products. Found in all domains of life, there are over 80 000 known compounds. The majority of characterized terpenoids, which include some of the most well known, pharmaceutically relevant, and commercially valuable natural products, are produced by plants and fungi. Comparatively, terpenoids of bacterial origin are rare. This is counter-intuitive to the fact that recent microbial genomics revealed that almost all bacteria have the biosynthetic potential to create the C5 building blocks necessary for terpenoid biosynthesis. In this review, we catalogue terpenoids produced by bacteria. We collected 1062 natural products, consisting of both primary and secondary metabolites, and classified them into two major families and 55 distinct subfamilies. To highlight the structural and chemical space of bacterial terpenoids, we discuss their structures, biosynthesis, and biological activities. Although the bacterial terpenome is relatively small, it presents a fascinating dichotomy for future research. Similarities between bacterial and non-bacterial terpenoids and their biosynthetic pathways provides alternative model systems for detailed characterization while the abundance of novel skeletons, biosynthetic pathways, and bioactivies presents new opportunities for drug discovery, genome mining, and enzymology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey D Rudolf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.
| | - Tyler A Alsup
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.
| | - Baofu Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.
| | - Zining Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.
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Fürst MJLJ, Gran-Scheuch A, Aalbers FS, Fraaije MW. Baeyer–Villiger Monooxygenases: Tunable Oxidative Biocatalysts. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b03396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian J. L. J. Fürst
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
| | - Alejandro Gran-Scheuch
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
- Department of Chemical and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago 7820436, Chile
| | - Friso S. Aalbers
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W. Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
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Deng Q, Liu Y, Chen L, Xu M, Naowarojna N, Lee N, Chen L, Zhu D, Hong X, Deng Z, Liu P, Zhao C. Biochemical Characterization of a Multifunctional Mononuclear Nonheme Iron Enzyme (PtlD) in Neopentalenoketolactone Biosynthesis. Org Lett 2019; 21:7592-7596. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b02872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Deng
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Linyue Chen
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meiling Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, 590 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Nathchar Naowarojna
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, 590 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Norman Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, 590 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Li Chen
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, 590 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Dongqing Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xuechuan Hong
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zixin Deng
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pinghua Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, 590 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Changming Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Combinatory Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei 430072, People’s Republic of China
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Myronovskyi M, Luzhetskyy A. Heterologous production of small molecules in the optimized Streptomyces hosts. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:1281-1294. [PMID: 31453623 DOI: 10.1039/c9np00023b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Time span of literature covered: 2010-2018The genome mining of streptomycetes has revealed their great biosynthetic potential to produce novel natural products. One of the most promising exploitation routes of this biosynthetic potential is the refactoring and heterologous expression of corresponding biosynthetic gene clusters in a panel of specifically selected and optimized chassis strains. This article will review selected recent reports on heterologous production of natural products in streptomycetes. In the first part, the importance of heterologous production for drug discovery will be discussed. In the second part, the review will discuss recently developed genetic control elements (such as promoters, ribosome binding sites, terminators) and their application to achieve successful heterologous expression of biosynthetic gene clusters. Finally, the most widely used Streptomyces hosts for heterologous expression of biosynthetic gene clusters will be compared in detail. The article will be of interest to natural product chemists, molecular biologists, pharmacists and all individuals working in the natural products drug discovery field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andriy Luzhetskyy
- Saarland University, Department Pharmacy, Saarbrücken, Germany and Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany.
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11
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Tolmie C, Smit MS, Opperman DJ. Native roles of Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases in the microbial metabolism of natural compounds. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:326-353. [DOI: 10.1039/c8np00054a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases function in the primary metabolism of atypical carbon sources, as well as the synthesis of complex microbial metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmien Tolmie
- Department of Biotechnology
- University of the Free State
- Bloemfontein
- South Africa
| | - Martha S. Smit
- Department of Biotechnology
- University of the Free State
- Bloemfontein
- South Africa
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12
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Nepal KK, Wang G. Streptomycetes: Surrogate hosts for the genetic manipulation of biosynthetic gene clusters and production of natural products. Biotechnol Adv 2019; 37:1-20. [PMID: 30312648 PMCID: PMC6343487 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Due to the worldwide prevalence of multidrug-resistant pathogens and high incidence of diseases such as cancer, there is an urgent need for the discovery and development of new drugs. Nearly half of the FDA-approved drugs are derived from natural products that are produced by living organisms, mainly bacteria, fungi, and plants. Commercial development is often limited by the low yield of the desired compounds expressed by the native producers. In addition, recent advances in whole genome sequencing and bioinformatics have revealed an abundance of cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters within microbial genomes. Genetic manipulation of clusters in the native host is commonly used to awaken poorly expressed or silent gene clusters, however, the lack of feasible genetic manipulation systems in many strains often hinders our ability to engineer the native producers. The transfer of gene clusters into heterologous hosts for expression of partial or entire biosynthetic pathways is an approach that can be used to overcome this limitation. Heterologous expression also facilitates the chimeric fusion of different biosynthetic pathways, leading to the generation of "unnatural" natural products. The genus Streptomyces is especially known to be a prolific source of drugs/antibiotics, its members are often used as heterologous expression hosts. In this review, we summarize recent applications of Streptomyces species, S. coelicolor, S. lividans, S. albus, S. venezuelae and S. avermitilis, as heterologous expression systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keshav K Nepal
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, 5600 U.S. 1 North, Fort Pierce, FL 34946, USA
| | - Guojun Wang
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, 5600 U.S. 1 North, Fort Pierce, FL 34946, USA.
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13
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Gao SS, Naowarojna N, Cheng R, Liu X, Liu P. Recent examples of α-ketoglutarate-dependent mononuclear non-haem iron enzymes in natural product biosyntheses. Nat Prod Rep 2018; 35:792-837. [PMID: 29932179 PMCID: PMC6093783 DOI: 10.1039/c7np00067g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Covering: up to 2018 α-Ketoglutarate (αKG, also known as 2-oxoglutarate)-dependent mononuclear non-haem iron (αKG-NHFe) enzymes catalyze a wide range of biochemical reactions, including hydroxylation, ring fragmentation, C-C bond cleavage, epimerization, desaturation, endoperoxidation and heterocycle formation. These enzymes utilize iron(ii) as the metallo-cofactor and αKG as the co-substrate. Herein, we summarize several novel αKG-NHFe enzymes involved in natural product biosyntheses discovered in recent years, including halogenation reactions, amino acid modifications and tailoring reactions in the biosynthesis of terpenes, lipids, fatty acids and phosphonates. We also conducted a survey of the currently available structures of αKG-NHFe enzymes, in which αKG binds to the metallo-centre bidentately through either a proximal- or distal-type binding mode. Future structure-function and structure-reactivity relationship investigations will provide crucial information regarding how activities in this large class of enzymes have been fine-tuned in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Shan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | | | - Ronghai Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | - Xueting Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA. and State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China.
| | - Pinghua Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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14
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Gran-Scheuch A, Trajkovic M, Parra L, Fraaije MW. Mining the Genome of Streptomyces leeuwenhoekii: Two New Type I Baeyer-Villiger Monooxygenases From Atacama Desert. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1609. [PMID: 30072972 PMCID: PMC6058054 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinobacteria are an important source of commercial (bio)compounds for the biotechnological and pharmaceutical industry. They have also been successfully exploited in the search of novel biocatalysts. We set out to explore a recently identified actinomycete, Streptomyces leeuwenhoekii C34, isolated from a hyper-arid region, the Atacama desert, for Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs). Such oxidative enzymes are known for their broad applicability as biocatalysts by being able to perform various chemical reactions with high chemo-, regio-, and/or enantioselectivity. By choosing this specific Actinobacterium, which comes from an extreme environment, the respective enzymes are also expected to display attractive features by tolerating harsh conditions. In this work, we identified two genes in the genome of S. leeuwenhoekii (sle_13190 and sle_62070) that were predicted to encode for Type I BVMOs, the respective flavoproteins share 49% sequence identity. The two genes were cloned, overexpressed in E. coli with phosphite dehydrogenase (PTDH) as fusion partner and successfully purified. Both flavin-containing proteins showed NADPH-dependent Baeyer–Villiger oxidation activity for various ketones and sulfoxidation activity with some sulfides. Gratifyingly, both enzymes were found to be rather robust by displaying a relatively high apparent melting temperature (45°C) and tolerating water-miscible cosolvents. Specifically, Sle_62070 was found to be highly active with cyclic ketones and displayed a high regioselectivity by producing only one lactone from 2-phenylcyclohexanone, and high enantioselectivity by producing only normal (-)-1S,5R and abnormal (-)-1R,5S lactones (ee > 99%) from bicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-en-6-one. These two newly discovered BVMOs add two new potent biocatalysts to the known collection of BVMOs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Gran-Scheuch
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.,Department of Chemical and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Milos Trajkovic
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Loreto Parra
- Department of Chemical and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marco W Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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15
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Discovery of Two Native Baeyer-Villiger Monooxygenases for Asymmetric Synthesis of Bulky Chiral Sulfoxides. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.00638-18. [PMID: 29752270 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00638-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Two Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs), designated BoBVMO and AmBVMO, were discovered from Bradyrhizobium oligotrophicum and Aeromicrobium marinum, respectively. Both monooxygenases displayed novel features for catalyzing the asymmetric sulfoxidation of bulky and pharmaceutically relevant thioethers. Evolutionary relationship and sequence analysis revealed that the two BVMOs belong to the family of typical type I BVMOs and the subtype ethionamide monooxygenase. Both BVMOs are active toward medium- and long-chain aliphatic ketones as well as various thioether substrates but are ineffective toward cyclohexanone, aromatic ketones, and other typical BVMO substrates. BoBVMO and AmBVMO showed the highest activities (0.117 and 0.025 U/mg protein, respectively) toward thioanisole among the tested substrates. Furthermore, these BVMOs exhibited distinct activity and excellent stereoselectivity toward bulky and prochiral prazole thioethers, which is a unique feature of this family of BVMOs. No native enzyme has been reported for the asymmetric sulfoxidation of bulky prazole thioethers into chiral sulfoxides. The identification of BoBVMO and AmBVMO provides an important scaffold for discovering enzymes capable of asymmetrically oxidizing bulky thioether substrates by genome mining.IMPORTANCE Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) are valuable enzyme catalysts that are an alternative to the chemical Baeyer-Villiger oxidation reaction. Although BVMOs display broad substrate ranges, no native enzymes were reported to have activity toward the asymmetric oxidation of bulky prazole-like thioether substrates. Herein, we report the discovery of two type I BVMOs from Bradyrhizobium oligotrophicum (BoBVMO) and Aeromicrobium marinum (AmBVMO) which are able to catalyze the asymmetric sulfoxidation of bulky prazole thioethers (proton pump inhibitors [PPIs], a group of drugs whose main action is a pronounced and long-lasting reduction of gastric acid production). Efficient catalysis of omeprazole oxidation by BoBVMO was developed, indicating that this enzyme is a promising biocatalyst for the synthesis of bulky and pharmaceutically relevant chiral sulfoxide drugs. These results demonstrate that the newly identified enzymes are suitable templates for the discovery of more and better thioether-converting BVMOs.
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16
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Pan X, Domin N, Schieferdecker S, Kage H, Roth M, Nett M. Herpetopanone, a diterpene from Herpetosiphon aurantiacus discovered by isotope labeling. Beilstein J Org Chem 2017; 13:2458-2465. [PMID: 29234472 PMCID: PMC5704754 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.13.242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The genome of the predatory bacterium Herpetosiphon aurantiacus 114-95T harbors a number of biosynthesis genes, including four terpene cyclase genes. To identify the terpenes biosynthesized from H. aurantiacus 114-95T, we fed the strain with 13C-labeled glucose and, subsequently, searched for characteristic mass shifts in its metabolome. This approach led to the discovery of a new natural product, of which the isotope pattern is indicative for a diterpene originating from the methylerythritol phosphate pathway. After large-scale fermentation of H. aurantiacus 114-95T, the putative diterpene was isolated in sufficient quantity to enable NMR-based structure elucidation. The compound, for which the name herpetopanone is proposed, features a rare octahydro-1H-indenyl skeleton. Herpetopanone bears resemblance to cadinane-type sesquiterpenes from plants, but is structurally entirely unprecedented in bacteria. Based on its molecular architecture, a possible biosynthetic pathway is postulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinli Pan
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Technical Biology, Technical University Dortmund, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany.,Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Nicole Domin
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Schieferdecker
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Hirokazu Kage
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Technical Biology, Technical University Dortmund, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Martin Roth
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Markus Nett
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Technical Biology, Technical University Dortmund, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
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17
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Kong L, Zhang W, Chooi YH, Wang L, Cao B, Deng Z, Chu Y, You D. A Multifunctional Monooxygenase XanO4 Catalyzes Xanthone Formation in Xantholipin Biosynthesis via a Cryptic Demethoxylation. Cell Chem Biol 2017; 23:508-16. [PMID: 27105283 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Xantholipin and several related polycyclic xanthone antibiotics feature a unique xanthone ring nucleus within a highly oxygenated, angular, fused hexacyclic system. In this study, we demonstrated that a flavin-dependent monooxygenase (FMO) XanO4 catalyzes the oxidative transformation of an anthraquinone to a xanthone system during the biosynthesis of xantholipin. In vitro isotopic labeling experiments showed that the reaction involves sequential insertion of two oxygen atoms, accompanied by an unexpected cryptic demethoxylation reaction. Moreover, characterizations of homologous FMOs of XanO4 suggested the generality of the XanO4-like-mediated reaction for the assembly of a xanthone ring in the biosynthesis of polycyclic xanthone antibiotics. These findings not only expand the repertoire of FMO activities but also reveal a novel mechanism for xanthone ring formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingxin Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Weike Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yit Heng Chooi
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Lu Wang
- Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610052, China
| | - Bo Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Zixin Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yiwen Chu
- Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610052, China
| | - Delin You
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China; Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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18
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Zhang X, Li S. Expansion of chemical space for natural products by uncommon P450 reactions. Nat Prod Rep 2017; 34:1061-1089. [DOI: 10.1039/c7np00028f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on unusual P450 reactions related to new chemistry, skeleton construction, structure re-shaping, and protein–protein interactions in natural product biosynthesis, which play significant roles in chemical space expansion for natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingwang Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels at Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Shengying Li
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels at Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao
- China
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19
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Fürst MJLJ, Savino S, Dudek HM, Gómez Castellanos JR, Gutiérrez de Souza C, Rovida S, Fraaije MW, Mattevi A. Polycyclic Ketone Monooxygenase from the Thermophilic Fungus Thermothelomyces thermophila: A Structurally Distinct Biocatalyst for Bulky Substrates. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 139:627-630. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b12246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian J. L. J. Fürst
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Simone Savino
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hanna M. Dudek
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - J. Rúben Gómez Castellanos
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Cora Gutiérrez de Souza
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Stefano Rovida
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W. Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Andrea Mattevi
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
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20
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Chen K, Wu S, Zhu L, Zhang C, Xiang W, Deng Z, Ikeda H, Cane DE, Zhu D. Substitution of a Single Amino Acid Reverses the Regiospecificity of the Baeyer-Villiger Monooxygenase PntE in the Biosynthesis of the Antibiotic Pentalenolactone. Biochemistry 2016; 55:6696-6704. [PMID: 27933799 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b01040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the biosynthesis of pentalenolactone (1), PenE and PntE, orthologous proteins from Streptomyces exfoliatus and S. arenae, respectively, catalyze the flavin-dependent Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of 1-deoxy-11-oxopentalenic acid (4) to the lactone pentalenolactone D (5), in which the less-substituted methylene carbon has migrated. By contrast, the paralogous PtlE enzyme from S. avermitilis catalyzes the oxidation of 4 to neopentalenolactone D (6), in which the more substituted methane substitution has undergone migration. We report the design and analysis of 13 single and multiple mutants of PntE mutants to identify the key amino acids that contribute to the regiospecificity of these two classes of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases. The L185S mutation in PntE reversed the observed regiospecificity of PntE such that all recombinant PntE mutants harboring this L185S mutation acquired the characteristic regiospecificity of PtlE, catalyzing the conversion of 4 to 6 as the major product. The recombinant PntE mutant harboring R484L exhibited reduced regiospecificity, generating a mixture of lactones containing more than 17% of 6. These in vitro results were corroborated by analysis of the complementation of the S. avermitilis ΔptlED double deletion mutant with pntE mutants, such that pntE mutants harboring L185S produced 6 as the major product, whereas complemention of the ΔptlED deletion mutant with pntE mutants carrying the R484L mutation gave 6 as more than 33% of the total lactone product mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Chen
- The Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), Wuhan University , Wuhan, Hubei Province 430071, China
| | - Shiwen Wu
- The Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), Wuhan University , Wuhan, Hubei Province 430071, China
| | - Lu Zhu
- The Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), Wuhan University , Wuhan, Hubei Province 430071, China
| | - Chengde Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), Wuhan University , Wuhan, Hubei Province 430071, China
| | - Wensheng Xiang
- School of Life Science, Northeast Agricultural University , Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150030, China
| | - Zixin Deng
- The Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), Wuhan University , Wuhan, Hubei Province 430071, China
| | - Haruo Ikeda
- Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato University , 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara, Minami-ku, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - David E Cane
- Department of Chemistry, Box H, Brown University , Providence, Rhode Island 02912-9108, United States
| | - Dongqing Zhu
- The Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), Wuhan University , Wuhan, Hubei Province 430071, China
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21
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Duan L, Jogl G, Cane DE. The Cytochrome P450-Catalyzed Oxidative Rearrangement in the Final Step of Pentalenolactone Biosynthesis: Substrate Structure Determines Mechanism. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:12678-89. [PMID: 27588339 PMCID: PMC5042876 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b08610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The final step in the biosynthesis of the sesquiterpenoid antibiotic pentalenolactone (1) is the highly unusual cytochrome P450-catalyzed, oxidative rearrangement of pentalenolactone F (2), involving the transient generation and rearrangement of a neopentyl cation. In Streptomyces arenae this reaction is catalyzed by CYP161C2 (PntM), with highly conserved orthologs being present in at least 10 other Actinomycetes. Crystal structures of substrate-free PntM, as well as PntM with bound substrate 2, product 1, and substrate analogue 6,7-dihydropentalenolactone F (7) revealed interactions of bound ligand with three residues, F232, M77, and M81 that are unique to PntM and its orthologs and absent from essentially all other P450s. Site-directed mutagenesis, ligand-binding measurements, steady-state kinetics, and reaction product profiles established there is no special stabilization of reactive cationic intermediates by these side chains. Reduced substrate analogue 7 did not undergo either oxidative rearrangement or simple hydroxylation, suggesting that the C1 carbocation is not anchimerically stabilized by the 6,7-double bond of 2. The crystal structures also revealed plausible proton relay networks likely involved in the generation of the key characteristic P450 oxidizing species, Compound I, and in mediating stereospecific deprotonation of H-3re of the substrate. We conclude that the unusual carbocation intermediate results from outer shell electron transfer from the transiently generated C1 radical to the tightly paired heme-•Fe(3+)-OH radical species. The oxidative electron transfer is kinetically dominant as a result of the unusually strong steric barrier to oxygen rebound to the neopentyl center C-1si, which is flanked on each neighboring carbon by syn-axial substituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Duan
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University , Box H, Providence, Rhode Island 02912-9108, United States
| | - Gerwald Jogl
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University , Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - David E Cane
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University , Box H, Providence, Rhode Island 02912-9108, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University , Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
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22
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Genome mining of the sordarin biosynthetic gene cluster from Sordaria araneosa Cain ATCC 36386: characterization of cycloaraneosene synthase and GDP-6-deoxyaltrose transferase. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2016; 69:541-8. [PMID: 27072286 DOI: 10.1038/ja.2016.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Revised: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Sordarin is a glycoside antibiotic with a unique tetracyclic diterpene aglycone structure called sordaricin. To understand its intriguing biosynthetic pathway that may include a Diels-Alder-type [4+2]cycloaddition, genome mining of the gene cluster from the draft genome sequence of the producer strain, Sordaria araneosa Cain ATCC 36386, was carried out. A contiguous 67 kb gene cluster consisting of 20 open reading frames encoding a putative diterpene cyclase, a glycosyltransferase, a type I polyketide synthase, and six cytochrome P450 monooxygenases were identified. In vitro enzymatic analysis of the putative diterpene cyclase SdnA showed that it catalyzes the transformation of geranylgeranyl diphosphate to cycloaraneosene, a known biosynthetic intermediate of sordarin. Furthermore, a putative glycosyltransferase SdnJ was found to catalyze the glycosylation of sordaricin in the presence of GDP-6-deoxy-d-altrose to give 4'-O-demethylsordarin. These results suggest that the identified sdn gene cluster is responsible for the biosynthesis of sordarin. Based on the isolated potential biosynthetic intermediates and bioinformatics analysis, a plausible biosynthetic pathway for sordarin is proposed.
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23
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Yamada Y, Kuzuyama T, Komatsu M, Shin-Ya K, Omura S, Cane DE, Ikeda H. Terpene synthases are widely distributed in bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:857-62. [PMID: 25535391 PMCID: PMC4311827 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1422108112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 330] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Odoriferous terpene metabolites of bacterial origin have been known for many years. In genome-sequenced Streptomycetaceae microorganisms, the vast majority produces the degraded sesquiterpene alcohol geosmin. Two minor groups of bacteria do not produce geosmin, with one of these groups instead producing other sesquiterpene alcohols, whereas members of the remaining group do not produce any detectable terpenoid metabolites. Because bacterial terpene synthases typically show no significant overall sequence similarity to any other known fungal or plant terpene synthases and usually exhibit relatively low levels of mutual sequence similarity with other bacterial synthases, simple correlation of protein sequence data with the structure of the cyclized terpene product has been precluded. We have previously described a powerful search method based on the use of hidden Markov models (HMMs) and protein families database (Pfam) search that has allowed the discovery of monoterpene synthases of bacterial origin. Using an enhanced set of HMM parameters generated using a training set of 140 previously identified bacterial terpene synthase sequences, a Pfam search of 8,759,463 predicted bacterial proteins from public databases and in-house draft genome data has now revealed 262 presumptive terpene synthases. The biochemical function of a considerable number of these presumptive terpene synthase genes could be determined by expression in a specially engineered heterologous Streptomyces host and spectroscopic identification of the resulting terpene products. In addition to a wide variety of terpenes that had been previously reported from fungal or plant sources, we have isolated and determined the complete structures of 13 previously unidentified cyclic sesquiterpenes and diterpenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Yamada
- Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato University, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Tomohisa Kuzuyama
- Biotechnology Research Center, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Mamoru Komatsu
- Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato University, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Kazuo Shin-Ya
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan
| | - Satoshi Omura
- Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo 108-8461, Japan; and
| | - David E Cane
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912-9108
| | - Haruo Ikeda
- Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato University, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan;
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24
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Tsakos M, Schaffert ES, Clement LL, Villadsen NL, Poulsen TB. Ester coupling reactions – an enduring challenge in the chemical synthesis of bioactive natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2015; 32:605-32. [DOI: 10.1039/c4np00106k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In this review we investigate the use of complex ester fragment couplings within natural product total syntheses. Using examples from the literature up to 2014 we illustrate the state-of-the-art as well as the challenges within this area of organic synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michail Tsakos
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Eva S. Schaffert
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Lise L. Clement
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Nikolaj L. Villadsen
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Thomas B. Poulsen
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
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25
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Takahashi S, Nagano S, Nogawa T, Kanoh N, Uramoto M, Kawatani M, Shimizu T, Miyazawa T, Shiro Y, Osada H. Structure-function analyses of cytochrome P450revI involved in reveromycin A biosynthesis and evaluation of the biological activity of its substrate, reveromycin T. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:32446-58. [PMID: 25258320 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.598391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous cytochrome P450s are involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis. The biosynthetic gene cluster for reveromycin A (RM-A), which is a promising lead compound with anti-osteoclastic activity, also includes a P450 gene, revI. To understand the roles of P450revI, we comprehensively characterized the enzyme by genetic, kinetic, and structural studies. The revI gene disruptants (ΔrevI) resulted in accumulation of reveromycin T (RM-T), and revI gene complementation restored RM-A production, indicating that the physiological substrate of P450revI is RM-T. Indeed, the purified P450revI catalyzed the C18-hydroxylation of RM-T more efficiently than the other RM derivatives tested. Moreover, the 1.4 Å resolution co-crystal structure of P450revI with RM-T revealed that the substrate binds the enzyme with a folded compact conformation for C18-hydroxylation. To address the structure-enzyme activity relationship, site-directed mutagenesis was performed in P450revI. R190A and R81A mutations, which abolished salt bridge formation with C1 and C24 carboxyl groups of RM-T, respectively, resulted in significant loss of enzyme activity. The interaction between Arg(190) and the C1 carboxyl group of RM-T elucidated why P450revI was unable to catalyze both RM-T 1-methyl ester and RM-T 1-ethyl ester. Moreover, the accumulation of RM-T in ΔrevI mutants enabled us to characterize its biological activity. Our results show that RM-T had stronger anticancer activity and isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase inhibition than RM-A. However, RM-T showed much less anti-osteoclastic activity than RM-A, indicating that hemisuccinate moiety is important for the activity. Structure-based P450revI engineering for novel hydroxylation and subsequent hemisuccinylation will help facilitate the development of RM derivatives with anti-osteoclast activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunji Takahashi
- From the Chemical Biology Group, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Saitama 351-0198, Japan, the Antibiotics Laboratory, RIKEN, Saitama 351-0198, Japan,
| | - Shingo Nagano
- the Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8582, Japan, the Biometal Science Laboratory, RIKEN SPring-8 Center, 1-1-1 Kouto, Sayo, Hyogo 679-5148, Japan, and
| | - Toshihiko Nogawa
- From the Chemical Biology Group, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Naoki Kanoh
- the Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Aobayama, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | - Yoshitsugu Shiro
- the Biometal Science Laboratory, RIKEN SPring-8 Center, 1-1-1 Kouto, Sayo, Hyogo 679-5148, Japan, and
| | - Hiroyuki Osada
- From the Chemical Biology Group, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Saitama 351-0198, Japan, the Antibiotics Laboratory, RIKEN, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
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Wang XJ, Zhang B, Yan YJ, An J, Zhang J, Liu CX, Xiang WS. Characterization and analysis of an industrial strain of Streptomyces bingchenggensis by genome sequencing and gene microarray. Genome 2014; 56:677-89. [PMID: 24299107 DOI: 10.1139/gen-2013-0098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Streptomyces bingchenggensis is a soil bacterium that produces milbemycins, a family of macrolide antibiotics that are commercially important in crop protection and veterinary medicine. In addition, S. bingchenggensis produces many other natural products including the polyether nanchangmycin and novel cyclic pentapeptides. To identify the gene clusters involved in the biosynthesis of these compounds, and better clarify the biochemical pathways of these gene clusters, the whole genome of S. bingchenggensis was sequenced, and the transcriptome profile was subsequently investigated by microarray. In comparison with other sequenced genomes in Streptomyces, S. bingchenggensis has the largest linear chromosome consisting of 11 936 683 base pairs (bp), with an average GC content of 70.8%. The 10 023 predicted protein-coding sequences include at least 47 gene clusters correlated with the biosynthesis of known or predicted secondary metabolites. Transcriptional analysis demonstrated an extremely high expression level of the milbemycin gene cluster during the entire growth period and a moderately high expression level of the nanchangmycin gene cluster during the initial hours that subsequently decreased. However, other gene clusters appear to be silent. The genome-wide analysis of the secondary metabolite gene clusters in S. bingchenggensis, coupled with transcriptional analysis, will facilitate the rational development of high milbemycins-producing strains as well as the discovery of new natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Jing Wang
- a School of Life Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
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Cloning, expression and characterization of a versatile Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase from Dietzia sp. D5. AMB Express 2014; 4:23. [PMID: 24949258 PMCID: PMC4052671 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-014-0023-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
A novel BVMO encoding gene was identified from a draft genome sequence of a newly isolated strain of Dietzia. Analysis of the protein sequence revealed that it belongs to a group of BVMOs whose most characterized member is cyclopentadecanone monooxygenase (CPDMO). The gene was PCR amplified, cloned and successfully expressed in E. coli. The expressed recombinant enzyme was purified using metal affinity chromatography. Characterization of the purified enzyme revealed that it has a broad substrate scope and oxidized different compounds including substituted and unsubstituted alicyclic, bicyclic-, aliphatic-ketones, ketones with an aromatic moiety, and sulfides. The highest activities were measured for 2- and 3-methylcyclohexanone, phenylacetone, bicyclo-[3.2.0]-hept-2-en-6-one and menthone. The enzyme was optimally active at pH 7.5 and 35°C, a temperature at which its half-life was about 20 hours. The stability studies have shown that this enzyme is more stable than all other reported BVMOs except the phenylacetone monooxygenase from the thermophilic organism Thermobifida fusca.
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28
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Genome mining of the Streptomyces avermitilis genome and development of genome-minimized hosts for heterologous expression of biosynthetic gene clusters. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 41:233-50. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-013-1327-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
To date, several actinomycete genomes have been completed and annotated. Among them, Streptomyces microorganisms are of major pharmaceutical interest because they are a rich source of numerous secondary metabolites. S. avermitilis is an industrial microorganism used for the production of an anthelmintic agent, avermectin, which is a commercially important antiparasitic agent in human and veterinary medicine, and agricultural pesticides. Genome analysis of S. avermitilis provides significant information for not only industrial applications but also understanding the features of this genus. On genome mining of S. avermitilis, the microorganism has been found to harbor at least 38 secondary metabolic gene clusters and 46 insertion sequence (IS)-like sequences on the genome, which have not been searched so far. A significant use of the genome data of Streptomyces microorganisms is the construction of a versatile host for heterologous expression of exogenous biosynthetic gene clusters by genetic engineering. Since S. avermitilis is used as an industrial microorganism, the microorganism is already optimized for the efficient supply of primary metabolic precursors and biochemical energy to support multistep biosynthesis. The feasibility of large-deletion mutants of S. avermitilis has been confirmed by heterologous expression of more than 20 exogenous biosynthetic gene clusters.
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29
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Nett M. Genome mining: concept and strategies for natural product discovery. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 99:199-245. [PMID: 25296440 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-04900-7_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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30
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Müller R, Wink J. Future potential for anti-infectives from bacteria - how to exploit biodiversity and genomic potential. Int J Med Microbiol 2013; 304:3-13. [PMID: 24119567 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The early stages of antibiotic development include the identification of novel hit compounds. Since actinomycetes and myxobacteria are still the most important natural sources of active metabolites, we provide an overview on these producers and discuss three of the most promising approaches toward finding novel anti-infectives from microorganisms. These are defined as the use of biodiversity to find novel producers, the variation of culture conditions and induction of silent genes, and the exploitation of the genomic potential of producers via "genome mining". Challenges that exist beyond compound discovery are outlined in the last section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolf Müller
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), P.O. Box 151150, 66041 Saarbrücken, Germany; Helmholtz Centre for Infectious Research (HZI), Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Joachim Wink
- Helmholtz Centre for Infectious Research (HZI), Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany.
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31
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Komatsu M, Komatsu K, Koiwai H, Yamada Y, Kozone I, Izumikawa M, Hashimoto J, Takagi M, Omura S, Shin-ya K, Cane DE, Ikeda H. Engineered Streptomyces avermitilis host for heterologous expression of biosynthetic gene cluster for secondary metabolites. ACS Synth Biol 2013; 2:384-96. [PMID: 23654282 PMCID: PMC3932656 DOI: 10.1021/sb3001003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
An industrial microorganism, Streptomyces avermitilis, which is a producer of anthelmintic macrocyclic lactones, avermectins, has been constructed as a versatile model host for heterologous expression of genes encoding secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Twenty of the entire biosynthetic gene clusters for secondary metabolites were successively cloned and introduced into a versatile model host S. avermitilis SUKA17 or 22. Almost all S. avermitilis transformants carrying the entire gene cluster produced metabolites as a result of the expression of biosynthetic gene clusters introduced. A few transformants were unable to produce metabolites, but their production was restored by the expression of biosynthetic genes using an alternative promoter or the expression of a regulatory gene in the gene cluster that controls the expression of biosynthetic genes in the cluster using an alternative promoter. Production of metabolites in some transformants of the versatile host was higher than that of the original producers, and cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters in the original producer were also expressed in a versatile host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamoru Komatsu
- Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
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32
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Genome engineering in actinomycetes using site-specific recombinases. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2013; 97:4701-12. [PMID: 23584280 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-4866-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The rational modification of the actinomycetes genomes has a variety of applications in research, medicine, and biotechnology. The use of site-specific recombinases allows generation of multiple mutations, large DNA deletions, integrations, and inversions and may lead to significant progress in all of these fields. Despite their huge potential, site-specific recombinase-based technologies have primarily been used for simple marker removal from a chromosome. In this review, we summarise the site-specific recombination approaches for genome engineering in various actinomycetes.
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33
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Tang MC, He HY, Zhang F, Tang GL. Baeyer–Villiger Oxidation of Acyl Carrier Protein-Tethered Thioester to Acyl Carrier Protein-Linked Thiocarbonate Catalyzed by a Monooxygenase Domain in FR901464 Biosynthesis. ACS Catal 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/cs300819e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Man-Cheng Tang
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products
Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032,
China
| | - Hai-Yan He
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products
Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032,
China
| | - Feng Zhang
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products
Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032,
China
| | - Gong-Li Tang
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products
Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai, 200032,
China
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34
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Product-mediated regulation of pentalenolactone biosynthesis in Streptomyces species by the MarR/SlyA family activators PenR and PntR. J Bacteriol 2013; 195:1255-66. [PMID: 23316039 DOI: 10.1128/jb.02079-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The orthologous penR and pntR genes from the pentalenolactone biosynthetic gene clusters of Streptomyces exfoliatus UC5319 and S. arenae TÜ469, respectively, were predicted to encode MarR/SlyA family transcriptional regulators, responsible for regulation of the biosynthesis of the sesquiterpenoid antibiotic pentalenolactone. The intrinsic target DNA sequences and small molecule ligands of purified recombinant PenR and PntR were identified by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. PenR bound to DNA from both the penR-gapN and penM-penH intergenic regions, while PntR bound only the corresponding pntR-gapR intergenic region. The targets of PenR and PntR were shown to be limited to conserved 37-bp DNA segments. Pentalenolactone and two late-stage biosynthetic intermediates, pentalenolactones D and F, act as ligands of both PenR and PntR, resulting in release of these proteins from their target DNA. The production of pentalenolactones was significantly decreased in the penR deletion mutant S. exfoliatus ΔpenR ZD27 but could be restored by complementation with either penR or pntR. Reverse transcription-PCR established that transcription of pentalenolactone biosynthetic and resistance genes decreased, while that of the penR gene itself increased in the penR deletion mutant S. exfoliatus ZD27 compared to the wild-type strain. The PenR protein thus serves as a positive regulator of pentalenolactone biosynthesis and self-resistance while acting as an autorepressor of penR.
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Abstract
Riboflavin-based coenzymes, tightly bound to enzymes catalyzing substrate oxidations and reductions, enable an enormous range of chemical transformations in biosynthetic pathways. Flavoenzymes catalyze substrate oxidations involving amine and alcohol oxidations and desaturations to olefins, the latter setting up Diels-Alder cyclizations in lovastatin and solanapyrone biosyntheses. Both C(4a) and N(5) of the flavin coenzymes are sites for covalent adduct formation. For example, the reactivity of dihydroflavins with molecular oxygen leads to flavin-4a-OOH adducts which then carry out a diverse range of oxygen transfers, including Baeyer-Villiger type ring expansions, olefin epoxidations, halogenations via transient HOCl generation, and an oxidative Favorskii rerrangement during enterocin assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher T Walsh
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Ave., Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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36
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Tibrewal N, Pahari P, Wang G, Kharel MK, Morris C, Downey T, Hou Y, Bugni TS, Rohr J. Baeyer-Villiger C-C bond cleavage reaction in gilvocarcin and jadomycin biosynthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:18181-4. [PMID: 23102024 DOI: 10.1021/ja3081154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
GilOII has been unambiguously identified as the key enzyme performing the crucial C-C bond cleavage reaction responsible for the unique rearrangement of a benz[a]anthracene skeleton to the benzo[d]naphthopyranone backbone typical of the gilvocarcin-type natural anticancer antibiotics. Further investigations of this enzyme led to the isolation of a hydroxyoxepinone intermediate, leading to important conclusions regarding the cleavage mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhi Tibrewal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone St., Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
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Balke K, Kadow M, Mallin H, Sass S, Bornscheuer UT. Discovery, application and protein engineering of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases for organic synthesis. Org Biomol Chem 2012; 10:6249-65. [PMID: 22733152 DOI: 10.1039/c2ob25704a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) are useful enzymes for organic synthesis as they enable the direct and highly regio- and stereoselective oxidation of ketones to esters or lactones simply with molecular oxygen. This contribution covers novel concepts such as searching in protein sequence databases using distinct motifs to discover new Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases as well as high-throughput assays to facilitate protein engineering in order to improve BVMOs with respect to substrate range, enantioselectivity, thermostability and other properties. Recent examples for the application of BVMOs in synthetic organic synthesis illustrate the broad potential of these biocatalysts. Furthermore, methods to facilitate the more efficient use of BVMOs in organic synthesis by applying e.g. improved cofactor regeneration, substrate feed and in situ product removal or immobilization are covered in this perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Balke
- Institute of Biochemistry, Dept of Biotechnology & Enzyme Catalysis, Greifswald University, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17487 Greifswald, Germany
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Abstract
Tens of thousands of terpenoids are present in both terrestrial and marine plants, as well as fungi. In the last 5-10 years, however, it has become evident that terpenes are also produced by numerous bacteria, especially soil-dwelling Gram-positive organisms such as Streptomyces and other Actinomycetes. Although some microbial terpenes, such as geosmin, the degraded sesquiterpene responsible for the smell of moist soil, the characteristic odor of the earth itself, have been known for over 100 years, few terpenoids have been identified by classical structure- or activity-guided screening of bacterial culture extracts. In fact, the majority of cyclic terpenes from bacterial species have only recently been uncovered by the newly developed techniques of "genome mining". In this new paradigm for biochemical discovery, bacterial genome sequences are first analyzed with powerful bioinformatic tools, such as the BLASTP program or Profile Hidden Markov models, to screen for and identify conserved protein sequences harboring a characteristic set of universally conserved functional domains typical of all terpene synthases. Of particular importance is the presence of variants of two universally conserved domains, the aspartate-rich DDXX(D/E) motif and the NSE/DTE triad, (N/D)DXX(S/T)XX(K/R)(D/E). Both domains have been implicated in the binding of the essential divalent cation, typically Mg(2+), that is required for cyclization of the universal acyclic terpene precursors, such as farnesyl and geranyl diphosphate. The low level of overall sequence similarity among terpene synthases, however, has so far precluded any simple correlation of protein sequence with the structure of the cyclized terpene product. The actual biochemical function of a cryptic bacterial (or indeed any) terpene synthase must therefore be determined by direct experiment. Two common approaches are (i) incubation of the expressed recombinant protein with acyclic allylic diphosphate substrates and identification of the resultant terpene hydrocarbon or alcohol and (ii) in vivo expression in engineered bacterial hosts that can support the production of terpene metabolites. One of the most attractive features of the coordinated application of genome mining and biochemical characterization is that the discovery of natural products is directly coupled to the simultaneous discovery and exploitation of the responsible biosynthetic genes and enzymes. Bacterial genome mining has proved highly rewarding scientifically, already uncovering more than a dozen newly identified cyclic terpenes (many of them unique to bacteria), as well as several novel cyclization mechanisms. Moreover, bioinformatic analysis has identified more than 120 presumptive genes for bacterial terpene synthases that are now ripe for exploration. In this Account, we review a particularly rich vein we have mined in the genomes of two model Actinomycetes, Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces avermitilis, from which the entire set of terpenoid biosynthetic genes and pathways have now been elucidated. In addition, studies of terpenoid biosynthetic gene clusters have revealed a wealth of previously unknown oxidative enzymes, including cytochromes P450, non-heme iron-dependent dioxygenases, and flavin monooxygenases. We have shown that these enzymes catalyze a variety of unusual biochemical reactions, including two-step ketonization of methylene groups, desaturation-epoxidation of secondary methyl groups, and pathway-specific Baeyer-Villiger oxidations of cyclic ketones.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E. Cane
- Department of Chemistry, Box H, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912-9108, United States
| | - Haruo Ikeda
- Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara, Minami-ku, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
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Abstract
Terpenoid compounds are generally considered to be plant or fungal metabolites, although a small number of odorous terpenoid metabolites of bacterial origin have been known for many years. Recently, extensive bacterial genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis of deduced bacterial proteins using a profile hidden Markov model have revealed more than a hundred distinct predicted terpene synthase genes. Although some of these synthase genes might be silent in the parent microorganisms under normal laboratory culture conditions, the controlled overexpression of these genes in a versatile heterologous host has made it possible to identify the biochemical function of cryptic genes and isolate new terpenoid metabolites.
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40
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Furaquinocins I and J: novel polyketide isoprenoid hybrid compounds from Streptomyces reveromyceticus SN-593. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2011; 64:509-13. [DOI: 10.1038/ja.2011.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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41
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Leisch H, Morley K, Lau PCK. Baeyer−Villiger Monooxygenases: More Than Just Green Chemistry. Chem Rev 2011; 111:4165-222. [DOI: 10.1021/cr1003437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Leisch
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, Quebec H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Krista Morley
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, Quebec H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Peter C. K. Lau
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, Quebec H4P 2R2, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, 3775 University Street, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
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de Gonzalo G, Mihovilovic MD, Fraaije MW. Recent developments in the application of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases as biocatalysts. Chembiochem 2011; 11:2208-31. [PMID: 20936617 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201000395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) represent a specific class of monooxygenases that are capable of catalyzing a variety of oxidation reactions, including Baeyer-Villiger oxidations. The recently elucidated BVMO crystal structures have provided a more detailed insight into the complex mechanism of these flavin-containing enzymes. Biocatalytic studies on a number of newly discovered BVMOs have shown that they are very potent oxidative biocatalysts. In addition to catalyzing the regio- and enantioselective Baeyer-Villiger oxidations of a wide range of carbonylic compounds, epoxidations, and enantioselective sulfoxidations have also been shown to be part of their catalytic repertoire. This review provides an overview on the recent developments in BVMO-mediated biocatalytic processes, identification of the catalytic role of these enzymes in metabolic routes and prodrug activation, as well as the efforts in developing effective biocatalytic methodologies to apply BVMOs for the synthesis of high added value compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo de Gonzalo
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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43
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Seo MJ, Zhu D, Endo S, Ikeda H, Cane DE. Genome mining in Streptomyces. Elucidation of the role of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases and non-heme iron-dependent dehydrogenase/oxygenases in the final steps of the biosynthesis of pentalenolactone and neopentalenolactone. Biochemistry 2011; 50:1739-54. [PMID: 21250661 DOI: 10.1021/bi1019786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The pentalenolactone biosynthetic gene clusters have been cloned and sequenced from two known producers of the sesquiterpenoid antibiotic pentalenolactone, Streptomyces exfoliatus UC5319 and Streptomyces arenae TÜ469. The recombinant enzymes PenE and PntE, from S. exfoliatus and S. arenae, respectively, catalyze the flavin-dependent Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of 1-deoxy-11-oxopentalenic acid (7) to pentalenolactone D (8). Recombinant PenD, PntD, and PtlD, the latter from Streptomyces avermitilis, each catalyze the Fe(2+)-α-ketoglutarate-dependent oxidation of pentalenolactone D (8) to pentalenolactone E (15) and pentalenolactone F (16). Incubation of PenD, PntD, or PtlD with the isomeric neopentalenolactone D (9) gave PL308 (12) and a compound tentatively identified as neopentalenolactone E (14). These results are corroborated by analysis of the ΔpenD and ΔpntD mutants of S. exfoliatus and S. arenae, respectively, both of which accumulate pentalenolactone D but are blocked in production of pentalenolactone as well as the precursors pentalenolactones E and F. Finally, complementation of the previously described S. avermitilis ΔptlE ΔptlD deletion mutant with either penE or pntE gave pentalenolactone D (8), while complemention of the ΔptlE ΔptlD double mutant with pntE plus pntD or penE plus pntD gave pentalenolactone F (16).
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Affiliation(s)
- Myung-Ji Seo
- Department of Chemistry, Box H, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912-9108, United States
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44
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Zhu D, Seo MJ, Ikeda H, Cane DE. Genome mining in streptomyces. Discovery of an unprecedented P450-catalyzed oxidative rearrangement that is the final step in the biosynthesis of pentalenolactone. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:2128-31. [PMID: 21284395 DOI: 10.1021/ja111279h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The penM and pntM genes from the pentalenolactone biosynthetic gene clusters of Streptomyces exfoliatus UC5319 and Streptomyces arenae TÜ469 were predicted to encode orthologous cytochrome P450s, CYP161C3 and CYP161C2, responsible for the final step in the biosynthesis of the sesquiterpenoid antibiotic pentalenolactone (1). Synthetic genes optimized for expression in Escherichia coli were used to obtain recombinant PenM and PntM, each carrying an N-terminal His(6)-tag. Both proteins showed typical reduced-CO UV maxima at 450 nm, and each bound the predicted substrate, pentalenolactone F (4), with K(D) values of 153 ± 14 and 126 ± 11 μM for PenM and PntM, respectively, as determined by UV shift titrations. PenM and PntM both catalyzed the oxidative rearrangement of 4 to 1 when incubated in the presence of NADPH, spinach ferredoxin, ferredoxin reductase, and O(2). The steady-state kinetic parameters were k(cat) = 10.5 ± 1.7 min(-1) and K(m) = 340 ± 100 μM 4 for PenM and k(cat) = 8.8 ± 0.9 min(-1) and K(m) = 430 ± 100 μM 4 for PntM. The in vivo function of both gene products was confirmed by the finding that the corresponding deletion mutants S. exfoliatus/ΔpenM ZD22 and S. arenae/ΔpntM ZD23 no longer produced pentalenolactone but accumulated the precursor pentalenolactone F. Complementation of each deletion mutant with either penM or pntM restored production of antibiotic 1. Pentalenolactone was also produced by an engineered strain of Streptomyces avermitilis that had been complemented with pntE, pntD, and either pntM or penM, as well as the S. avermitilis electron-transport genes for ferredoxin and ferrodoxin reductase, fdxD and fprD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongqing Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Box H, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912-9108, United States
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Pentalenic acid is a shunt metabolite in the biosynthesis of the pentalenolactone family of metabolites: hydroxylation of 1-deoxypentalenic acid mediated by CYP105D7 (SAV_7469) of Streptomyces avermitilis. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2010; 64:65-71. [PMID: 21081950 DOI: 10.1038/ja.2010.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Pentalenic acid (1) has been isolated from many Streptomyces sp. as a co-metabolite of the sesquiterpenoid antibiotic pentalenolactone and related natural products. We have previously reported the identification of a 13.4-kb gene cluster in the genome of Streptomyces avermitilis implicated in the biosynthesis of the pentalenolactone family of metabolites consisting of 13 open reading frames. Detailed molecular genetic and biochemical studies have revealed that at least seven genes are involved in the biosynthesis of the newly discovered metabolites, neopentalenoketolactone, but no gene specifically dedicated to the formation of pentalenic acid (1) was evident in the same gene cluster. The wild-type strain of S. avermitilis, as well as its derivatives, mainly produce pentalenic acid (1), together with neopentalenoketolactone (9). Disruption of the sav7469 gene encoding a cytochrome P450 (CYP105D7), members of which class are associated with the hydroxylation of many structurally different compounds, abolished the production of pentalenic acid (1). The sav7469-deletion mutant derived from SUKA11 carrying pKU462∷ptl-clusterΔptlH accumulated 1-deoxypentalenic acid (5), but not pentalenic acid (1). Reintroduction of an extra-copy of the sav7469 gene to SUKA11 Δsav7469 carrying pKU462∷ptl-clusterΔptlH restored the production of pentalenic acid (1). Recombinant CYP105D7 prepared from Escherichia coli catalyzed the oxidative conversion of 1-deoxypentalenic acid (5) to pentalenic acid (1) in the presence of the electron-transport partners, ferredoxin (Fdx) and Fdx reductase, both in vivo and in vitro. These results unambiguously demonstrate that CYP105D7 is responsible for the conversion of 1-deoxypentalenic acid (5) to pentalenic acid (1), a shunt product in the biosynthesis of the pentalenolactone family of metabolites.
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Walsh CT, Fischbach MA. Natural products version 2.0: connecting genes to molecules. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:2469-93. [PMID: 20121095 DOI: 10.1021/ja909118a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 323] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Natural products have played a prominent role in the history of organic chemistry, and they continue to be important as drugs, biological probes, and targets of study for synthetic and analytical chemists. In this Perspective, we explore how connecting Nature's small molecules to the genes that encode them has sparked a renaissance in natural product research, focusing primarily on the biosynthesis of polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides. We survey monomer biogenesis, coupling chemistries from templated and non-templated pathways, and the broad set of tailoring reactions and hybrid pathways that give rise to the diverse scaffolds and functionalization patterns of natural products. We conclude by considering two questions: What would it take to find all natural product scaffolds? What kind of scientists will be studying natural products in the future?
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher T Walsh
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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Streptomyces and Saccharopolyspora hosts for heterologous expression of secondary metabolite gene clusters. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 37:759-72. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-010-0730-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Biochemical characterization of a novel indole prenyltransferase from Streptomyces sp. SN-593. J Bacteriol 2010; 192:2839-51. [PMID: 20348259 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01557-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome sequencing of Streptomyces species has highlighted numerous potential genes of secondary metabolite biosynthesis. The mining of cryptic genes is important for exploring chemical diversity. Here we report the metabolite-guided genome mining and functional characterization of a cryptic gene by biochemical studies. Based on systematic purification of metabolites from Streptomyces sp. SN-593, we isolated a novel compound, 6-dimethylallylindole (DMAI)-3-carbaldehyde. Although many 6-DMAI compounds have been isolated from a variety of organisms, an enzyme catalyzing the transfer of a dimethylallyl group to the C-6 indole ring has not been reported so far. A homology search using known prenyltransferase sequences against the draft sequence of the Streptomyces sp. SN-593 genome revealed the iptA gene. The IptA protein showed 27% amino acid identity to cyanobacterial LtxC, which catalyzes the transfer of a geranyl group to (-)-indolactam V. A BLAST search against IptA revealed much-more-similar homologs at the amino acid level than LtxC, namely, SAML0654 (60%) from Streptomyces ambofaciens ATCC 23877 and SCO7467 (58%) from S. coelicolor A3(2). Phylogenetic analysis showed that IptA was distinct from bacterial aromatic prenyltransferases and fungal indole prenyltransferases. Detailed kinetic analyses of IptA showed the highest catalytic efficiency (6.13 min(-1) microM(-1)) for L-Trp in the presence of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), suggesting that the enzyme is a 6-dimethylallyl-L-Trp synthase (6-DMATS). Substrate specificity analyses of IptA revealed promiscuity for indole derivatives, and its reaction products were identified as novel 6-DMAI compounds. Moreover, DeltaiptA mutants abolished the production of 6-DMAI-3-carbaldehyde as well as 6-dimethylallyl-L-Trp, suggesting that the iptA gene is involved in the production of 6-DMAI-3-carbaldehyde.
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Kharel MK, Nybo SE, Shepherd MD, Rohr J. Cloning and characterization of the ravidomycin and chrysomycin biosynthetic gene clusters. Chembiochem 2010; 11:523-32. [PMID: 20140934 PMCID: PMC2879346 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200900673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The gene clusters responsible for the biosynthesis of two antitumor antibiotics, ravidomycin and chrysomycin, have been cloned from Streptomyces ravidus and Streptomyces albaduncus, respectively. Sequencing of the 33.28 kb DNA region of the cosmid cosRav32 and the 34.65 kb DNA region of cosChry1-1 and cosChryF2 revealed 36 and 35 open reading frames (ORFs), respectively, harboring tandem sets of type II polyketide synthase (PKS) genes, D-ravidosamine and D-virenose biosynthetic genes, post-PKS tailoring genes, regulatory genes, and genes of unknown function. The isolated ravidomycin gene cluster was confirmed to be involved in ravidomycin biosynthesis through the production of a new analogue of ravidomycin along with anticipated pathway intermediates and biosynthetic shunt products upon heterologous expression of the cosmid, cosRav32, in Streptomyces lividans TK24. The identity of the cluster was further verified through cross complementation of gilvocarcin V (GV) mutants. Similarly, the chrysomycin gene cluster was demonstrated to be indirectly involved in chrysomycin biosynthesis through cross-complementation of gilvocarcin mutants deficient in the oxygenases GilOII, GilOIII, and GilOIV with the respective chrysomycin monooxygenase homologues. The ravidomycin glycosyltransferase (RavGT) appears to be able to transfer both amino- and neutral sugars, exemplified through the structurally distinct 6-membered D-ravidosamine and 5-membered D-fucofuranose, to the coumarin-based polyketide derived backbone. These results expand the library of biosynthetic genes involved in the biosyntheses of gilvocarcin class compounds that can be used to generate novel analogues through combinatorial biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madan K Kharel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0596, USA
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Lau PCK, Leisch H, Yachnin BJ, Mirza IA, Berghuis AM, Iwaki H, Hasegawa Y. Sustained Development in Baeyer-Villiger Biooxidation Technology. ACS SYMPOSIUM SERIES 2010. [DOI: 10.1021/bk-2010-1043.ch024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter C. K. Lau
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
- Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, 564-8680, Japan
| | - Hannes Leisch
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
- Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, 564-8680, Japan
| | - Brahm J. Yachnin
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
- Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, 564-8680, Japan
| | - I. Ahmad Mirza
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
- Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, 564-8680, Japan
| | - Albert M. Berghuis
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
- Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, 564-8680, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Iwaki
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
- Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, 564-8680, Japan
| | - Yoshie Hasegawa
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
- Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, 564-8680, Japan
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