Role of the carbonyl group of the (6-4) photoproduct in the (6-4) photolyase reaction

Immobilization strategies of photolyases: Challenges and perspectives for DNA repairing application

Photolyases are enzymes that repair DNA damage caused by solar radiation. Due to their photorepair potential, photolyases added in topical creams and used in medical treatments has allowed to reverse skin damage and prevent the development of different diseases, including actinic keratosis, premature photoaging and cancer. For this reason, research has been oriented to the study of new photolyases performing in extreme environments, where high doses of UV radiation may be a key factor for these enzymes to have perfected their photorepair potential. Generally, the extracted enzymes are first encapsulated and then added to the topical creams to increase their stability. However, other well consolidated immobilization methods are interesting strategies to be studied that may improve the biocatalyst performance. This review aims to go through the different Antarctic organisms that have exhibited photoreactivation activity, explaining the main mechanisms of photolyase DNA photorepair. The challenges of immobilizing these enzymes on porous and nanostructured supports is also discussed. The comparison of the most reported immobilization methods with respect to the structure of photolyases show that both covalent and ionic immobilization methods produced an increase in their stability. Moreover, the use of nanosized materials as photolyase support would permit the incorporation of the biocatalyst into the target cell, which is a technological requirement that photolyase based biocatalysts must fulfill.

Structure of the bifunctional cryptochrome aCRY from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Photolyases and cryptochromes form an almost ubiquitous family of blue light photoreceptors involved in the repair and maintenance of DNA integrity or regulatory control. We found that one cryptochrome from the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (CraCRY) is capable of both, control of transcript levels and the sexual cycle of the alga in a positive (germination) and negative manner (mating ability), as well as catalyzing the repair of UV-DNA lesions. Its 1.6 Å crystal structure shows besides the FAD chromophore an aromatic tetrad that is indispensable in animal-like type I cryptochromes for light-driven change of their signaling-active redox state and formation of a stable radical pair. Given CraCRY’s catalytic activity as (6-4) photolyase in vivo and in vitro, we present the first co-crystal structure of a cryptochrome with duplex DNA comprising a (6-4) pyrimidine–pyrimidone lesion. This 2.9 Å structure reveals a distinct conformation for the catalytic histidine His₁, H357, that challenges previous models of a single-photon driven (6-4) photolyase mechanism.

Similarities and Differences between Thymine(6-4)Thymine/Cytosine DNA Lesion Repairs by Photolyases

Photolyases are ancient enzymes that harvest sunlight to repair DNA pyrimidine lesions such as pyrimidine(6-4)pyrimidone and cyclobutane dimers. Particularly, (6-4) photolyase ((6-4)PHR) plays an important role in maintaining genetic integrity by repairing thymine(6-4)thymine (T(6-4)T) and thymine(6-4)cytosine (T(6-4)C) photolesions. The majority of (6-4)PHR studies have been performed on the basis of the former's activity and assuming the equivalence of the two repair mechanisms, although the latter's activity remains poorly studied. Here, we describe investigations of the repair process of the T(6-4)C dimer using several computational methods from molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to large quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical approaches. Two possible mechanisms, the historically proposed azetidine four-member ring intermediate and the free NH₃ formation pathways, were considered. The MD results predicted that important active site histidine residues employed for the repair of the T(6-4)C dimer have protonation states similar to those seen in the (6-4)PHR/T(6-4)T complex. More importantly, despite chemical differences between the two substrates, a similar repair mechanism was identified: His365 protonates NH₂, resulting in formation/activation mechanism of a free NH₃, inducing NH₂ transfer to the 5' base, and ultimately leading to pyrimidine restoration. This reaction is thermodynamically favorable with a rate-limiting barrier of 20.4 kcal mol^-1. In contrast, the azetidine intermediate is unfeasible, possessing an energy barrier of 60 kcal mol^-1; this barrier is similar to that predicted for the oxetane intermediate in T(6-4)T repair. Although both substrates are repaired with comparable quantum yields, the reactive complex in T(6-4)C was shown to be a 3' base radical with a lower driving force for back electron transfer combined with higher energy barrier for catalysis. These results showed the similarity in the general repair mechanisms between the two substrates while emphasizing differences in the electron dynamics in the repair cycle.

Photolyase: Dynamics and electron-transfer mechanisms of DNA repair

Photolyase, a flavoenzyme containing flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) molecule as a catalytic cofactor, repairs UV-induced DNA damage of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) and pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproduct using blue light. The FAD cofactor, conserved in the whole protein superfamily of photolyase/cryptochromes, adopts a unique folded configuration at the active site that plays a critical functional role in DNA repair. Here, we review our comprehensive characterization of the dynamics of flavin cofactor and its repair photocycles by different classes of photolyases on the most fundamental level. Using femtosecond spectroscopy and molecular biology, significant advances have recently been made to map out the entire dynamical evolution and determine actual timescales of all the catalytic processes in photolyases. The repair of CPD reveals seven electron-transfer (ET) reactions among ten elementary steps by a cyclic ET radical mechanism through bifurcating ET pathways, a direct tunneling route mediated by the intervening adenine and a two-step hopping path bridged by the intermediate adenine from the cofactor to damaged DNA, through the conserved folded flavin at the active site. The unified, bifurcated ET mechanism elucidates the molecular origin of various repair quantum yields of different photolyases from three life kingdoms. For 6-4 photoproduct repair, a similar cyclic ET mechanism operates and a new cyclic proton transfer with a conserved histidine residue at the active site of (6-4) photolyases is revealed.

Photolyase: Dynamics and Mechanisms of Repair of Sun-Induced DNA Damage

Photolyase, a photomachine discovered half a century ago for repair of sun-induced DNA damage of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and pyrimidine (6-4) pyrimidone photoproducts (6-4PPs), has been characterized extensively in biochemistry (function), structure and dynamics since 1980s. The molecular mechanism and repair photocycle have been revealed at the most fundamental level. Using femtosecond spectroscopy, we have mapped out the entire dynamical evolution and determined all actual timescales of the catalytic processes. Here, we review our recent efforts in studies of the dynamics of DNA repair by photolyases. The repair of CPDs in three life kingdoms includes seven electron transfer (ET) reactions among 10 elementary steps through initial bifurcating ET pathways, a direct tunneling route and a two-step hopping path both through an intervening adenine from the cofactor to CPD, with a conserved folded structure at the active site. The repair of 6-4PPs is challenging and requires similar ET reactions and a new cyclic proton transfer with a conserved histidine residue at the active site of (6-4) photolyases. Finally, we also summarize our efforts on multiple intraprotein ET of photolyases in different redox states and such mechanistic studies are critical to the functional mechanism of homologous cryptochromes of blue-light photoreceptors.

Insights into Light-driven DNA Repair by Photolyases: Challenges and Opportunities for Electronic Structure Theory

Ultraviolet radiation causes two of the most abundant mutagenic and cytotoxic DNA lesions: cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and 6-4 photoproducts. (6-4) Photolyases are light-activated enzymes that selectively bind to DNA and trigger repair of mutagenic 6-4 photoproducts via photoinduced electron transfer from flavin adenine dinucleotide anion (FADH^- ) to the lesion triggering repair. This review provides an overview of the sequential steps of the repair process, that is light absorption and resonance energy transfer, photoinduced electron transfer and electron-induced splitting mechanisms, with an emphasis on the role of theory and computation. In addition, theoretical calculations and physical properties that can be used to classify specific mechanism are discussed in an effort to trace the fundamental aspects of each individual step and assist the interpretation of experimental data. The current challenges and suggested future directions are outlined for each step, concluding with a view on the future.

Characterization of the Intermediate in and Identification of the Repair Mechanism of (6-4) Photolesions by Photolyases

Quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations are employed to assign previously recorded experimental spectroscopic signatures of the intermediates occurring during the photo-induced repair of (6-4) photolesions by photolyases to specific molecular structures. Based on this close comparison of experiment and theory it is demonstrated that the acting repair mechanism involves proton transfer from the protonated His365 to the N3' nitrogen of the lesion, which proceeds simultaneously with intramolecular OH transfer along an oxetane-like transition state.

Electron transfer mechanisms of DNA repair by photolyase

Photolyase is a flavin photoenzyme that repairs two DNA base damage products induced by ultraviolet (UV) light: cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and 6-4 photoproducts. With femtosecond spectroscopy and site-directed mutagenesis, investigators have recently made significant advances in our understanding of UV-damaged DNA repair, and the entire enzymatic dynamics can now be mapped out in real time. For dimer repair, six elementary steps have been characterized, including three electron transfer reactions and two bond-breaking processes, and their reaction times have been determined. A unique electron-tunneling pathway was identified, and the critical residues in modulating the repair function at the active site were determined. The dynamic synergy between the elementary reactions for maintaining high repair efficiency was elucidated, and the biological nature of the flavin active state was uncovered. For 6-4 photoproduct repair, a proton-coupled electron transfer repair mechanism has been revealed. The elucidation of electron transfer mechanisms and two repair photocycles is significant and provides a molecular basis for future practical applications, such as in rational drug design for curing skin cancer.

Dynamics and mechanisms of DNA repair by photolyase

Photolyases, a class of flavoproteins, use blue light to repair two types of ultraviolet-induced DNA damage, a cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) and a pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproduct (6-4PP). In this perspective, we review the recent progress in the repair dynamics and mechanisms of both types of DNA restoration by photolyases. We first report the spectroscopic characterization of flavin in various redox states and the active-site solvation dynamics in photolyases. We then systematically summarize the detailed repair dynamics of damaged DNA by photolyases and a biomimetic system through resolving all elementary steps on ultrafast timescales, including multiple intermolecular electron- and proton-transfer reactions and bond-breaking and -making processes. We determined the unique electron tunneling pathways, identified the key functional residues and revealed the molecular origin of high repair efficiency, and thus elucidate the molecular mechanisms and repair photocycles at the most fundamental level. We finally conclude that the active sites of photolyases, unlike the aqueous solution for the biomimetic system, provide a unique electrostatic environment and local flexibility and thus a dedicated synergy for all elementary dynamics to maximize the repair efficiency. This repair photomachine is the first enzyme that the entire functional evolution is completely mapped out in real time.

A quantum chemical perspective on (6-4) photolesion repair by photolyases

(6-4)-Photolyases are fascinating enzymes which repair (6-4)-DNA photolesions utilizing light themselves. It is well known that upon initial photo-excitation of an antenna pigment an electron is transferred from an adjacent FADH(-) cofactor to the photolesion initiating repair, i.e. restoration of the original undamaged DNA bases. Concerning the molecular details of this amazing repair mechanism, the early steps of energy transfer and catalytic electron generation are well understood, the terminal repair mechanism, however, is still a matter of ongoing debate. In this perspective article, recent results of quantum chemical investigations are presented, and their meaning for the repair mechanism under natural conditions is outlined. Consequences of natural light conditions, temperature and thermal equilibration are highlighted when issues like the initial protonation state of the relevant histidines and the lesion, or the direction of electron transfer are discussed.

Combined QM/MM investigation on the light-driven electron-induced repair of the (6-4) thymine dimer catalyzed by DNA photolyase

The (6-4) photolyases are blue-light-activated enzymes that selectively bind to DNA and initiate splitting of mutagenic thymine (6-4) thymine photoproducts (T(6-4)T-PP) via photoinduced electron transfer from flavin adenine dinucleotide anion (FADH(-)) to the lesion triggering repair. In the present work, the repair mechanism after the initial electron transfer and the effect of the protein/DNA environment are investigated theoretically by means of hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) simulations using X-ray structure of the enzyme-DNA complex. By comparison of three previously proposed repair mechanisms, we found that the lowest activation free energy is required for the pathway in which the key step governing the repair photocycle is electron transfer coupled with the proton transfer from the protonated histidine, His365, to the N3' nitrogen of the pyrimidone thymine. The transfer simultaneously occurs with concerted intramolecular OH transfer without formation of an oxetane or isolated water molecule intermediate. In contrast to previously suggested mechanisms, this newly identified pathway requires neither a subsequent two-photon process nor electronic excitation of the photolesion.

Repair of the (6-4) photoproduct by DNA photolyase requires two photons

It takes two (photons) to tango: Single-turnover flash experiments showed that the flavoenzyme (6-4) photolyase uses a successive two-photon mechanism to repair the UV-induced T(6-4)T lesion in DNA (see picture). The intermediate (X) formed by the first photoreaction is likely to be the oxetane-bridged dimer T(ox)T. The enzyme could stabilize the normally short-lived T(ox)T, allowing repair to be completed by the second photoreaction.

Intermolecular Coulombic Decay in Biology: The Initial Electron Detachment from FADH(-) in DNA Photolyases

Intermolecular coulombic decay (ICD) is an efficient mechanism of low-energy electron generation in condensed phases and is discussed as their potential source in living cells, tissues, and materials. The first example of ICD as an operating mechanism in real biological systems, that is, in the DNA repair enzymes photolyases, is presented. Photolyase function involves light-induced electron detachment from a reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH(-)), followed by its transfer to the DNA-lesion triggering repair of covalently bound nucleobase dimers. Modern quantum chemical methods are employed to demonstrate that the transferred electron is efficiently generated via a resonant ICD process between the antenna pigment and the FADH(-) cofactors.

Theoretical study on the repair mechanism of the (6-4) photolesion by the (6-4) photolyase

UV irradiation of DNA can lead to the formation of mutagenic (6-4) pyrimidine-pyrimidone photolesions. The (6-4) photolyases are the enzymes responsible for the photoinduced repair of such lesions. On the basis of the recently published crystal structure of the (6-4) photolyase bound to DNA [Maul et al. 2008] and employing quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics techniques, a repair mechanism is proposed, which involves two photoexcitations. The flavin chromophore, initially being in its reduced anionic form, is photoexcited and donates an electron to the (6-4) form of the photolesion. The photolesion is then protonated by the neighboring histidine residue and forms a radical intermediate. The latter undergoes a series of energy stabilizing hydrogen-bonding rearrangements before the electron back transfer to the flavin semiquinone. The resulting structure corresponds to the oxetane intermediate, long thought to be formed upon DNA-enzyme binding. A second photoexcitation of the flavin promotes another electron transfer to the oxetane. Proton donation from the same histidine residue allows for the splitting of the four-membered ring, hence opening an efficient pathway to the final repaired form. The repair of the lesion by a single photoexcitation was shown not to be feasible.

Dynamics and mechanism of repair of ultraviolet-induced (6-4) photoproduct by photolyase

One of the detrimental effects of UV radiation on DNA is the formation of the (6-4) photoproduct (6-4PP) between two adjacent pyrimidines1. This lesion interferes with replication and transcription and may result in mutation and cell death2. In many organisms a flavoenzyme called photolyase uses blue light energy to repair the 6-4PP3. The molecular mechanism of the repair reaction is poorly understood. Here, we use ultrafast spectroscopy to show that the key step in the repair photocycle is a cyclic proton transfer between the enzyme and the substrate. By femtosecond synchronization of the enzymatic dynamics with the repair function, we followed the function evolution and observed direct electron transfer from the excited flavin cofactor to the 6-4PP in 225 ps but surprisingly fast back electron transfer in 50 ps without repair. Strikingly, we found that the catalytic proton transfer between a histidine residue in the active site and the 6-4PP, induced by the initial photoinduced electron transfer from the excited flavin cofactor to 6-4PP, occurs in 425 ps and leads to 6-4PP repair in tens of nanoseconds. These key dynamics define the repair photocycle and explain the underlying molecular mechanism of the enzyme’s modest efficiency.

Reaction mechanisms of DNA photolyase

DNA photolyase uses visible light and a fully reduced flavin cofactor FADH(-) to repair major UV-induced lesions in DNA, the cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs). Electron transfer from photoexcited FADH(-) to CPD, splitting of the two intradimer bonds, and back electron transfer to the transiently formed flavin radical FADH° occur in overall 1ns. Whereas the kinetics of FADH° was resolved, the DNA-based intermediates escaped unambiguous detection yet. Another light reaction, named photoactivation, reduces catalytically inactive FADH° to FADH(-) without implication of DNA. It involves electron hopping along a chain of three tryptophan residues in 30ps, as elucidated in detail by transient absorption spectroscopy. The same triple tryptophan chain is found in cryptochrome blue-light photoreceptors and may be involved in their primary photoreaction.

Electronic structure of (6-4) DNA photoproduct repair involving a non-oxetane pathway

Mutagenic pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproducts are one of the main DNA lesions induced by solar UV radiation. These lesions can be photoreversed by (6-4) photolyases. The originally published repair mechanism involves rearrangement of the lesion into an oxetane intermediate upon binding to the (6-4) photolyase, followed by light-induced electron transfer from the reduced flavin cofactor. In a recent crystallographic study on a (6-4) photoproduct complexed with (6-4) photolyase from Drosophila melanogaster no oxetane was observed, raising the possibility of a non-oxetane repair mechanism. Using quantum-chemical calculations we find that in addition to repair via an oxetane, a direct transfer of the hydroxyl group results in reversal of the radical anion (6-4) photoproduct. In both mechanisms, the transition states have high energies and correspond to avoided crossings of the ground and excited electronic states. To study whether the repair can proceed via these state crossings, the excited-state potential energy curves were computed. The radical excitation energies and accessibility of the nonadiabatic repair path were found to depend on hydrogen bonds and the protonation state of the lesion. On the basis of the energy calculations, a nonadiabatic repair of the excited (6-4) lesion radical anion via hydroxyl transfer is probable. This repair mechanism is in line with the recent structural data on the (6-4) photolyase from D. melanogaster .