Structural analysis of Z-Z DNA junctions with A:A and T:T mismatched base pairs by NMR

Novel eGZ-motif formed by regularly extruded guanine bases in a left-handed Z-DNA helix as a major motif behind CGG trinucleotide repeats

The expansion of d(CGG) trinucleotide repeats (TRs) lies behind several important neurodegenerative diseases. Atypical DNA secondary structures have been shown to trigger TR expansion: their characterization is important for a molecular understanding of TR disease. CD spectroscopy experiments in the last decade have unequivocally demonstrated that CGG runs adopt a left-handed Z-DNA conformation, whose features remain uncertain because it entails accommodating GG mismatches. In order to find this missing motif, we have carried out molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to explore all the possible Z-DNA helices that potentially form after the transition from B- to Z-DNA. Such helices combine either CpG or GpC Watson-Crick steps in Z-DNA form with GG-mismatch conformations set as either intrahelical or extrahelical; and participating in BZ or ZZ junctions or in alternately extruded conformations. Characterization of the stability and structural features (especially overall left-handedness, higher-temperature and steered MD simulations) identified two novel Z-DNA helices: the most stable one displays alternately extruded Gs, and is followed by a helix with symmetrically extruded ZZ junctions. The G-extrusion favors a seamless stacking of the Watson-Crick base pairs; extruded Gs favor syn conformations and display hydrogen-bonding and stacking interactions. Such conformations could have the potential to hijack the MMR complex, thus triggering further expansion.

Mechanisms of antisense transcription initiation from the 3' end of the GAL10 coding sequence in vivo

In spite of the important regulatory functions of antisense transcripts in gene expression, it remains unknown how antisense transcription is initiated. Recent studies implicated RNA polymerase II in initiation of antisense transcription. However, how RNA polymerase II is targeted to initiate antisense transcription has not been elucidated. Here, we have analyzed the association of RNA polymerase II with the antisense initiation site at the 3' end of the GAL10 coding sequence in dextrose-containing growth medium that induces antisense transcription. We find that RNA polymerase II is targeted to the antisense initiation site at GAL10 by Reb1p activator as well as general transcription factors (e.g., TFIID, TFIIB, and Mediator) for antisense transcription initiation. Intriguingly, while GAL10 antisense transcription is dependent on TFIID, its sense transcription does not require TFIID. Further, the Gal4p activator that promotes GAL10 sense transcription is dispensable for antisense transcription. Moreover, the proteasome that facilitates GAL10 sense transcription does not control its antisense transcription. Taken together, our results reveal that GAL10 sense and antisense transcriptions are regulated differently and shed much light on the mechanisms of antisense transcription initiation.

The yin and yang of repair mechanisms in DNA structure-induced genetic instability

DNA can adopt a variety of secondary structures that deviate from the canonical Watson-Crick B-DNA form. More than 10 types of non-canonical or non-B DNA secondary structures have been characterized, and the sequences that have the capacity to adopt such structures are very abundant in the human genome. Non-B DNA structures have been implicated in many important biological processes and can serve as sources of genetic instability, implicating them in disease and evolution. Non-B DNA conformations interact with a wide variety of proteins involved in replication, transcription, DNA repair, and chromatin architectural regulation. In this review, we will focus on the interactions of DNA repair proteins with non-B DNA and their roles in genetic instability, as the proteins and DNA involved in such interactions may represent plausible targets for selective therapeutic intervention.

Crystal structure of a junction between two Z-DNA helices

The double helix of DNA, when composed of dinucleotide purine-pyrimidine repeats, can adopt a left-handed helical structure called Z-DNA. For reasons not entirely understood, such dinucleotide repeats in genomic sequences have been associated with genomic instability leading to cancer. Adoption of the left-handed conformation results in the formation of conformational junctions: A B-to-Z junction is formed at the boundaries of the helix, whereas a Z-to-Z junction is commonly formed in sequences where the dinucleotide repeat is interrupted by single base insertions or deletions that bring neighboring helices out of phase. B-Z junctions are shown to result in exposed nucleotides vulnerable to chemical or enzymatic modification. Here we describe the three-dimensional structure of a Z-Z junction stabilized by Zalpha, the Z-DNA binding domain of the RNA editing enzyme ADAR1. We show that the junction structure consists of a single base pair and leads to partial or full disruption of the helical stacking. The junction region allows intercalating agents to insert themselves into the left-handed helix, which is otherwise resistant to intercalation. However, unlike a B-Z junction, in this structure the bases are not fully extruded, and the stacking between the two left-handed helices is not continuous.

Interaction in vitro of type III intermediate filament proteins with Z-DNA and B-Z-DNA junctions

The selection of DNA fragments containing simple d(GT)(n) and composite d(GT)(m). d(GA)(n) microsatellites during affinity binding of mouse genomic DNA to type III cytoplasmic intermediate filaments (cIFs) in vitro, and the detection of such repeats, often as parts of nuclear matrix attachment region (MAR)-like DNA, in SDS-stable DNA-vimentin crosslinkage products isolated from intact fibroblasts, prompted a detailed study of the interaction of type III cIF proteins with left-handed Z-DNA formed from d(GT)(17) and d(CG)(17) repeats under the topological tension of negatively supercoiled plasmids. Although d(GT)(n) tracts possess a distinctly lower Z-DNA-forming potential than d(CG)(n) tracts, the filament proteins produced a stronger electrophoretic mobility shift with a plasmid carrying a d(GT)(17) insert than with plasmids containing different d(CG)(n) inserts, consistent with the facts that the B-Z transition of d(GT)(n) repeats requires a higher negative superhelical density than that of d(CG)(n) repeats and the affinity of cIF proteins for plasmid DNA increases with its superhelical tension. That both types of dinucleotide repeat had indeed undergone B-Z transition was confirmed by S1 nuclease and chemical footprinting analysis of the plasmids, which also demonstrated efficient protection by cIF proteins from nucleolytic and chemical attack of the Z-DNA helices as such, as well as of the flanking B-Z junctions. The analysis also revealed sensibilization of nucleotides in the center of one of the two strands of a perfect d(CG)(17) insert toward S1 nuclease, indicating cIF protein-induced bending of the repeat. In all these assays, vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) showed comparable activities, versus desmin, which was almost inactive. In addition, vimentin and GFAP exhibited much higher affinities for the Z-DNA conformation of brominated, linear d(CG)(25) repeats than for the B-DNA configuration of the unmodified oligonucleotides. While double-stranded DNA was incapable of chasing the Z-DNA from its protein complexes, and Holliday junction and single-stranded (ss)DNA were distinguished by reasonable competitiveness, phosphatidylinositol (PI) and, particularly, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-diphosphate (PIP(2)) turned out to be extremely potent competitors. Because PIP(2) is an important member of the nuclear PI signal transduction cascade, it might exert a regulatory influence on the binding of cIF proteins to Z- and other DNA conformations. From this interaction of cIF proteins with Z- and bent DNA and their previously detected affinities for MAR-like, ss, triple helical, and four-way junction DNA, it may be concluded that the filament proteins play a general role in such nuclear matrix-associated processes as DNA replication, recombination, repair, and transcription.

Structural studies of a stable parallel-stranded DNA duplex incorporating isoguanine:cytosine and isocytosine:guanine basepairs by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Isoguanine (2-hydroxyladenine) is a product of oxidative damage to DNA and has been shown to cause mutation. It is also a potent inducer of parallel-stranded DNA duplex structure. The structure of the parallel-stranded DNA duplex (PS-duplex) 5'-d(TiGiCAiCiGiGAiCT) + 5'-d(ACGTGCCTGA), containing the isoguanine (iG) and 5-methyl-isocytosine (iC) bases, has been determined by NMR refinement. All imino protons associated with the iG:C, G:iC, and A:T (except the two terminal A:T) basepairs are observed at 2 degrees C, consistent with the formation of a stable duplex suggested by the earlier Tm measurements [Sugiyama, H., S. Ikeda, and I. Saito. 1996. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118:9994-9995]. All basepairs are in the reverse Watson-Crick configuration. The structural characteristics of the refined PS-duplex are different from those of B-DNA. The PS duplex has two grooves with similar width (7.0 A) and depth (7.7 A), in contrast to the two distinct grooves (major groove width 11.7 A, depth 8.5 A, and minor groove width 5.7 A, depth 7.5 A) of B-DNA. The resonances of the amino protons of iG and C are clearly resolved and observable, but those of the G and iC are very broad and difficult to observe. Several intercalators with different complexities, including ethidium, daunorubicin, and nogalamycin, have been used to probe the flexibility of the backbone of the (iG, iC)-containing PS-duplex. All of them produce drug-induced UV/vis spectra identical to their respective spectra when bound to B-DNA, suggesting that those drugs bind to the (iG, iC)-containing PS-duplex using similar intercalation processes. The results may be useful in the design of intercalator-conjugated oligonucleotides for antisense applications. The study presented in this paper augments our understanding of a growing number of parallel-stranded DNA structures, including the G-quartet, the i-motif, and the unusual homo basepaired parallel-stranded double helix. Their possible relevance is discussed.