Lipase-Catalyzed Synthesis of an Epoxy-Functionalized Polyester from the Suberin Monomer cis-9,10-Epoxy-18-hydroxyoctadecanoic Acid

Plant-Oil-Based Fibre Composites for Boat Hulls

Plant-oil-based fibre composites for boat hulls are an interesting and growing group of materials. Although many problems are to be tackled at different stages of their preparation, the green composites are already successfully commercialised. Within this paper, the most important chemical and physical characteristics of both natural fibres and sustainable resins are provided in the form of a comprehensive review. Finally, the complex issue of interactions filler-matrix is considered.

Lipase-Catalyzed Epoxy-Acid Addition and Transesterification: from Model Molecule Studies to Network Build-Up

Commercially available lipase from Pseudomonas stutzeri (lipase TL) is investigated as a biocatalyst for the formation of an acid-epoxy chemical network. Molecular model reactions are performed by reacting 2-phenyl glycidyl ether and hexanoic acid in bulk, varying two parameters: temperature and water content. Characterizations of the formed products by ¹H NMR spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry combined with enzymatic assays confirm that lipase TL is able to simultaneously promote acid-epoxy addition and transesterification reactions below 100 °C and solely the acid-epoxy addition after denaturation at T > 100 °C. A prototype bio-based chemical network with β-hydroxyester links was obtained using resorcinol diglycidyl ether and sebacic acid as monomers with lipase TL as catalyst. Differential scanning calorimetry, attenuated total reflection, and swelling analysis confirm gelation of the network.

The Food-Materials Nexus: Next Generation Bioplastics and Advanced Materials from Agri-Food Residues

The most recent strategies available for upcycling agri-food losses and waste (FLW) into functional bioplastics and advanced materials are reviewed and the valorization of food residuals are put in perspective, adding to the water-food-energy nexus. Low value or underutilized biomass, biocolloids, water-soluble biopolymers, polymerizable monomers, and nutrients are introduced as feasible building blocks for biotechnological conversion into bioplastics. The latter are demonstrated for their incorporation in multifunctional packaging, biomedical devices, sensors, actuators, and energy conversion and storage devices, contributing to the valorization efforts within the future circular bioeconomy. Strategies are introduced to effectively synthesize, deconstruct and reassemble or engineer FLW-derived monomeric, polymeric, and colloidal building blocks. Multifunctional bioplastics are introduced considering the structural, chemical, physical as well as the accessibility of FLW precursors. Processing techniques are analyzed within the fields of polymer chemistry and physics. The prospects of FLW streams and biomass surplus, considering their availability, interactions with water and thermal stability, are critically discussed in a near-future scenario that is expected to lead to next-generation bioplastics and advanced materials.

Simple and Effective Approach to Prepare an Epoxy-Functionalized Polymer and Its Application for an Electrochemical Immunosensor

An epoxy-functionalized polymer based on a new skeleton has been prepared via an efficient method and it combined with aminated carbon nanotubes to form a new composite material. This new composite material was applied for the fabrication of an electrochemical immunosensor with good performance. The inexpensive and easily available IgG was used to test the performance of the prepared composite material. The levels of IgG were quantitatively analyzed using a differential pulse voltammetry detection system and the lowest detection limit was calculated to be 0.05 ng/mL. The detection system can also respond to IgG in the concentration range from 0.1 to 25 ng/mL.

Multiple grafting to enzymatically synthesized polyesters

Enzymatic polymerization is an environmentally benign process for the synthesis of biodegradable and biocompatible polymers. The regioselectivity of lipase B from Candida Antarctica (CAL-B) produces linear functional polyesters without protection-deprotection steps. In this work, two different methods for the enzymatic synthesis of functional polyesters based on renewable resources, as, e.g., glycerol, using CAL-B are outlined. Poly(glycerol adipate) was synthesized by enzymatic transesterification between glycerol and divinyl adipate or dimethyl adipate. Methods are also reported to graft poly(glycerol adipate) with different amounts of hydrophobic side chains (lauric, stearic, behenic, and oleic acids) and hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) side chains, respectively. The hydrophilicity or lipophilicity of grafted polyesters is well controlled by changing the degree of grafting of hydrophilic and hydrophobic side chains. The multiple grafted polyesters are characterized by NMR spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, gel permeation chromatography, and X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, the self-assembly of the graft copolymers in water and their use as steric stabilizers for cubosomes are discussed. For this purpose mainly dynamic light scattering and small angle X-ray scattering have been employed.

One-pot enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of dual-functional polyester macromers towards surface-active hydrophobic films

Selective enzyme catalysis is a valuable tool for the processing of monomers into value-added materials.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Biobased Polyesters and Polyamides

Nowadays, "green" is a hot topic almost everywhere, from retailers to universities to industries; and achieving a green status has become a universal aim. However, polymers are commonly considered not to be "green", being associated with massive energy consumption and severe pollution problems (for example, the "Plastic Soup") as a public stereotype. To achieve green polymers, three elements should be entailed: (1) green raw materials, catalysts and solvents; (2) eco-friendly synthesis processes; and (3) sustainable polymers with a low carbon footprint, for example, (bio)degradable polymers or polymers which can be recycled or disposed with a gentle environmental impact. By utilizing biobased monomers in enzymatic polymerizations, many advantageous green aspects can be fulfilled. For example, biobased monomers and enzyme catalysts are renewable materials that are derived from biomass feedstocks; enzymatic polymerizations are clean and energy saving processes; and no toxic residuals contaminate the final products. Therefore, synthesis of renewable polymers via enzymatic polymerizations of biobased monomers provides an opportunity for achieving green polymers and a future sustainable polymer industry, which will eventually play an essential role for realizing and maintaining a biobased and sustainable society.

Enzymes as Green Catalysts for Precision Macromolecular Synthesis

The present article comprehensively reviews the macromolecular synthesis using enzymes as catalysts. Among the six main classes of enzymes, the three classes, oxidoreductases, transferases, and hydrolases, have been employed as catalysts for the in vitro macromolecular synthesis and modification reactions. Appropriate design of reaction including monomer and enzyme catalyst produces macromolecules with precisely controlled structure, similarly as in vivo enzymatic reactions. The reaction controls the product structure with respect to substrate selectivity, chemo-selectivity, regio-selectivity, stereoselectivity, and choro-selectivity. Oxidoreductases catalyze various oxidation polymerizations of aromatic compounds as well as vinyl polymerizations. Transferases are effective catalysts for producing polysaccharide having a variety of structure and polyesters. Hydrolases catalyzing the bond-cleaving of macromolecules in vivo, catalyze the reverse reaction for bond forming in vitro to give various polysaccharides and functionalized polyesters. The enzymatic polymerizations allowed the first in vitro synthesis of natural polysaccharides having complicated structures like cellulose, amylose, xylan, chitin, hyaluronan, and chondroitin. These polymerizations are "green" with several respects; nontoxicity of enzyme, high catalyst efficiency, selective reactions under mild conditions using green solvents and renewable starting materials, and producing minimal byproducts. Thus, the enzymatic polymerization is desirable for the environment and contributes to "green polymer chemistry" for maintaining sustainable society.

Green process for green materials: viable low-temperature lipase-catalysed synthesis of renewable telechelics in supercritical CO2

We present a novel near-ambient-temperature approach to telechelic renewable polyesters by exploiting the unique properties of supercritical CO(2) (scCO(2)). Bio-based commercially available monomers have been polymerized and functional telechelic materials with targeted molecular weight prepared by end-capping the chains with molecules containing reactive moieties in a one-pot reaction. The use of scCO(2) as a reaction medium facilitates the effective use of Candida antarctica Lipase B (CaLB) as a catalyst at a temperature as low as 35°C, hence avoiding side reactions, maintaining the end-capper functionality and preserving the enzyme activity. The functionalized polymer products have been characterized by (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, gel permeation chromatography and differential scanning calorimetry in order to carefully assess their structural and thermal properties. We demonstrate that telechelic materials can be produced enzymatically at mild temperatures, in a solvent-free system and using renewably sourced monomers without pre-modification, by exploiting the unique properties of scCO(2). The macromolecules we prepare are ideal green precursors that can be further reacted to prepare useful bio-derived films and coatings.

Suberin: the biopolyester at the frontier of plants

Suberin is a lipophilic macromolecule found in specialized plant cell walls, wherever insulation or protection toward the surroundings is needed. Suberized cells form the periderm, the tissue that envelops secondary stems as part of the bark, and develop as the sealing tissue after wounding or leaf abscission. Suberin is a complex polyester built from poly-functional long-chain fatty acids (suberin acids) and glycerol. The suberin acids composition of a number of plant tissues and species is now established, but how the polyester macromolecule is assembled within the suberized cell walls is not known. In the last years contributions from several areas have however significantly enriched our understanding of suberin. The primary structure of the polyester, i.e., how the suberin acids and glycerol are sequentially linked was revealed, together with the stereochemistry of the mid-chain functional groups some suberin acids have; solid-state NMR studies showed the presence of methylene chains spatially separated and with different molecular mobility; biophysical studies showed the membrane behavior of suberin acids derivatives, allowing new insights on structure-properties relationships; and a number of candidate genes were conclusively related to suberin biosynthesis. The comprehension of suberin as a macromolecule will be essential to understand its vital protective roles in plants and how they will deal with eventual environmental changes. Suberin is also expected to be a source for high-performing bio-based chemicals, taking advantage of the structural uniqueness of their constituent suberin acids.

Enzymatic Polymerization of an Ibuprofen-Containing Monomer and Subsequent Drug Release

Novel ibuprofen-containing monomers comprising naturally occurring and biocompatible compounds were synthesized and subsequently polymerized via enzymatic methods. Through the use of a malic acid sugar backbone, ibuprofen was attached as a pendant group, and then subsequently polymerized with a linear aliphatic diol (1,3-propanediol, 1,5-pentanediol, or 1,8-octanediol) as comonomer using lipase B from Candida antarctica, a greener alternative to traditional metal catalysts. Polymer structures were elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopies, and thermal properties and molecular weights were determined. All polymers exhibited sustained ibuprofen release, with the longer chain, more hydrophobic diols exhibiting the slowest release over the 30 d study. Polymers were deemed cytocompatible using mouse fibroblasts, when evaluated at relevant therapeutic concentrations. Additionally, ibuprofen retained its chemical integrity throughout the polymerization and in vitro hydrolytic degradation processes. This methodology of enzymatic polymerization of a drug presents a more environmentally friendly synthesis and a novel approach to bioactive polymer conjugates.

Apple russeting as seen through the RNA-seq lens: strong alterations in the exocarp cell wall

Russeting, a commercially important defect in the exocarp of apple (Malus × domestica), is mainly characterized by the accumulation of suberin on the inner part of the cell wall of the outer epidermal cell layers. However, knowledge on the underlying genetic components triggering this trait remains sketchy. Bulk transcriptomic profiling was performed on the exocarps of three russeted and three waxy apple varieties. This experimental design was chosen to lower the impact of genotype on the obtained results. Validation by qPCR was carried out on representative genes and additional varieties. Gene ontology enrichment revealed a repression of lignin and cuticle biosynthesis genes in russeted exocarps, concomitantly with an enhanced expression of suberin deposition, stress responsive, primary sensing, NAC and MYB-family transcription factors, and specific triterpene biosynthetic genes. Notably, a strong correlation (R(2) = 0.976) between the expression of a MYB93-like transcription factor and key suberin biosynthetic genes was found. Our results suggest that russeting is induced by a decreased expression of cuticle biosynthetic genes, leading to a stress response which not only affects suberin deposition, but also the entire structure of the cell wall. The large number of candidate genes identified in this study provides a solid foundation for further functional studies.

Facile and Highly Efficient Strategy for Synthesis of Functional Polyesters via Tetramethyl Guanidine Promoted Polyesterification at Room Temperature

A facile and highly efficient strategy for the synthesis of functional polyesters from 10-undecenoic acid, which is abundantly available and derived from ricin oil, has been successfully achieved using 1,1,3,3-tetramethyl guanidine (TMG) as a promoter at room temperature. The experimental results indicate that high molecular weight polyesters have been obtained and a variety of functional groups, such as alkenyl, alkynyl, nitro, epoxy, hydroxyl, and bromoisobutyrate, can be incorporated as pendant groups. The structures of the obtained polymers were demonstrated by ¹H and ¹³C NMR spectroscopy and their thermal properties were studied by DSC and TGA.

Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of azido-functionalized aliphatic polyesters towards acid-degradable amphiphilic graft copolymers

A series of novel aliphatic polyesters with azido functional groups were synthesized via the direct lipase-catalyzed polycondensation of dialkyl diester, diol and 2-azido-1,3-propanediol (azido glycerol) using immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica (CALB). The effects of polymerization conditions including reaction time, temperature, enzyme amount, substrates and monomer feed ratio on the molecular weights of the products were studied. The polyesters with pendant azido groups were characterized by (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR, 2D NMR, FTIR, GPC and DSC. Alkyne end-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol) containing a cleavable acetal group was then grafted onto the polyester backbone by copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC, click chemistry). Using fluorescence spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), these amphiphilic graft copolymers were found to readily self-assemble into nanosized micelles in aqueous solution with critical micelle concentrations between 0.70 and 1.97 mg L(-1), and micelle sizes from 20-70 nm. The degradation of these polymers under acidic conditions was investigated by GPC and (1)H NMR spectroscopy. Cell cytotoxicity tests indicated that the micelles had no apparent cytotoxicity to Bel-7402 cells, suggesting their potential as carriers for controlled drug delivery.

Apoplastic diffusion barriers in Arabidopsis

During the development of Arabidopsis and other land plants, diffusion barriers are formed in the apoplast of specialized tissues within a variety of plant organs. While the cuticle of the epidermis is the primary diffusion barrier in the shoot, the Casparian strips and suberin lamellae of the endodermis and the periderm represent the diffusion barriers in the root. Different classes of molecules contribute to the formation of extracellular diffusion barriers in an organ- and tissue-specific manner. Cutin and wax are the major components of the cuticle, lignin forms the early Casparian strip, and suberin is deposited in the stage II endodermis and the periderm. The current status of our understanding of the relationships between the chemical structure, ultrastructure and physiological functions of plant diffusion barriers is discussed. Specific aspects of the synthesis of diffusion barrier components and protocols that can be used for the assessment of barrier function and important barrier properties are also presented.

Oligomerization of 10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid and methyl 10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoate catalyzed by lipases

The main monomer of tomato cuticle, 10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid (10,16-DHPA) and its methyl ester derivative (methyl-10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanote; methyl-10,16-DHHD), were used to study their oligomerization reactions catalyzed by five lipases: Candida antarctica lipase B (CAL-B), Rhizomucor miehei lipase (RM), Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase (TL), Pseudomonas cepacia lipase (PCL) and porcine pancreatic lipase (PPL). For 10,16-DHPA, optimum yields were obtained at 60 °C using toluene and 2-methyl-2-butanol (2M2B) as solvent, while for methyl-10,16-DHHD the bests yields were obtained in toluene and acetonitrile. Both reactions leaded to linear polyesters according to the NMR and FT-IR analysis, and there was no data indicating the presence of branched polymers. Using optimized conditions, poly(10,16-DHPA) and poly(methyl-10,16-DHHD) with Mw = 814 and Mn = 1,206 Da, and Mw = 982 and Mn = 860 Da, respectively, were formed according to their MALDI-TOF MS and ESI-MS data. The self-assembly of the polyesters obtained were analyzed by AFM.

Acyl-lipid metabolism

Acyl lipids in Arabidopsis and all other plants have a myriad of diverse functions. These include providing the core diffusion barrier of the membranes that separates cells and subcellular organelles. This function alone involves more than 10 membrane lipid classes, including the phospholipids, galactolipids, and sphingolipids, and within each class the variations in acyl chain composition expand the number of structures to several hundred possible molecular species. Acyl lipids in the form of triacylglycerol account for 35% of the weight of Arabidopsis seeds and represent their major form of carbon and energy storage. A layer of cutin and cuticular waxes that restricts the loss of water and provides protection from invasions by pathogens and other stresses covers the entire aerial surface of Arabidopsis. Similar functions are provided by suberin and its associated waxes that are localized in roots, seed coats, and abscission zones and are produced in response to wounding. This chapter focuses on the metabolic pathways that are associated with the biosynthesis and degradation of the acyl lipids mentioned above. These pathways, enzymes, and genes are also presented in detail in an associated website (ARALIP: http://aralip.plantbiology.msu.edu/). Protocols and methods used for analysis of Arabidopsis lipids are provided. Finally, a detailed summary of the composition of Arabidopsis lipids is provided in three figures and 15 tables.

Solving the puzzles of cutin and suberin polymer biosynthesis

Cutin and suberin are insoluble lipid polymers that provide critical barrier functions to the cell wall of certain plant tissues, including the epidermis, endodermis and periderm. Genes that are specific to the biosynthesis of cutins and/or aliphatic suberins have been identified, mainly in Arabidopsis thaliana. They notably encode acyltransferases, oxidases and transporters, which may have either well-defined or more debatable biochemical functions. However, despite these advances, important aspects of cutin and suberin synthesis remain obscure. Central questions include whether fatty acyl monomers or oligomers are exported, and the extent of extracellular assembly and attachment to the cell wall. These issues are reviewed. Greater emphasis on chemistry and biochemistry will be required to solve these unknowns and link structure with function.

Synthesis of aliphatic suberin-like polyesters by ecofriendly catalytic systems

A rapid and ecofriendly microwave assisted p-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) emulsion polycondensation of long-chain suberin model comonomers was successfully carried out for the first time. Microwave irradiation reduced drastically the reaction time to only 15 min, compared with the DBSA/water polycondensation under conventional heating. Bulk polycondensation using CALB lipase or Bi(OTf)3 were also carried out with isolation yields up to 93% and number-average molecular weights up to around 7300.

Suberin research in the genomics era--new interest for an old polymer

Suberin is an apoplastic biopolymer with tissue-specific deposition in the cell walls of the endo- and exodermis of roots, of periderms including wound periderm and other border tissues. Suberised cell walls contain both polyaliphatic and polyaromatic domains which are supposedly cross-linked. The predominant aliphatic components are ω-hydroxyacids, α,ω-diacids, fatty acids and primary alcohols, whereas hydroxycinnamic acids, especially ferulic acid, are the main components of the polyaromatic domain. Although the monomeric composition of suberin has been known for decades, its biosynthesis and deposition has mainly been a subject of speculation. Only recently, significant progress elucidating suberin biosynthesis has been achieved using molecular genetic approaches, especially in the model species Arabidopsis. In parallel, the long-standing hypothesis that suberin functions as an apoplastic barrier has been corroborated by sophisticated, quantitative physiological studies in the past decade. These studies demonstrated that suberised cell walls could act as barriers, minimising the movement of water and nutrients, restricting pathogen invasion and impeding toxic gas diffusion. In addition, suberised cell walls provide a barrier to radial oxygen loss from roots to the anaerobic root substrate in wetland plants. The recent onset of multidisciplinary approaches combining genetic, analytical and physiological studies has begun to deliver further insights into the physiological importance of suberin depositions in plants.

Enzyme-catalysis breathes new life into polyester condensation polymerizations

Traditional chemical catalysts for polyester synthesis have enabled the generation of important commercial products. Undesirable characteristics of chemically catalyzed condensation polymerizations include the need to conduct reactions at high temperatures (150-280 degrees C) with metal catalysts that are toxic and lack selectivity. The latter is limiting when aspiring towards synthesis of increasingly complex and well-defined polyesters. This review describes an exciting technology that makes use of immobilized enzyme-catalysts for condensation polyester synthesis. Unlike chemical catalysts, enzymes function under mild conditions (< or =100 degrees C), which enables structure retention when polymerizing unstable monomers, circumvents the introduction of metals, and also provides selectivity that avoids protection-deprotection steps and presents unique options for structural control. Examples are provided that describe the progress made in enzyme-catalyzed polymerizations, as well as current limitations and future prospects for developing more efficient enzyme-catalysts for industrial processes.

Acyl-lipid metabolism

Acyl lipids in Arabidopsis and all other plants have a myriad of diverse functions. These include providing the core diffusion barrier of the membranes that separates cells and subcellular organelles. This function alone involves more than 10 membrane lipid classes, including the phospholipids, galactolipids, and sphingolipids, and within each class the variations in acyl chain composition expand the number of structures to several hundred possible molecular species. Acyl lipids in the form of triacylglycerol account for 35% of the weight of Arabidopsis seeds and represent their major form of carbon and energy storage. A layer of cutin and cuticular waxes that restricts the loss of water and provides protection from invasions by pathogens and other stresses covers the entire aerial surface of Arabidopsis. Similar functions are provided by suberin and its associated waxes that are localized in roots, seed coats, and abscission zones and are produced in response to wounding. This chapter focuses on the metabolic pathways that are associated with the biosynthesis and degradation of the acyl lipids mentioned above. These pathways, enzymes, and genes are also presented in detail in an associated website (ARALIP: http://aralip.plantbiology.msu.edu/). Protocols and methods used for analysis of Arabidopsis lipids are provided. Finally, a detailed summary of the composition of Arabidopsis lipids is provided in three figures and 15 tables.

Determination of the hydroxy and carboxylic acid groups in natural complex mixtures of hydroxy fatty acids by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

The use of trichloroacetyl isocyanate (TAI) to mark both hydroxyl and carboxyl groups borne by the hydrolysis or methanolysis of suberin fragments (a complex mixture of hydroxy fatty acids), allowed the quantitative assessment of the ratio between carboxyl and hydroxy groups, as well as the ratio between primary and secondary hydroxy groups, to be carried out reliably by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. All the samples thus analyzed displayed an excess of CO2H (or CO2CH3) functions with respect to the OH counterparts, albeit to a variable extent, depending on the procedure adopted to isolate the suberin fragments. The precise knowledge of the molar ratio of these two reactive moieties is fundamental for the correct utilization of suberin monomers in polymerization reactions leading to aliphatic polyesters.

Building lipid barriers: biosynthesis of cutin and suberin

Cutin and suberin are the polymer matrices for lipophilic cell wall barriers. These barriers control the fluxes of gases, water and solutes, and also play roles in protecting plants from biotic and abiotic stresses and in controlling plant morphology. Although they are ubiquitous, cutin and suberin are the least understood of the major plant extracellular polymers. The use of forward and reverse genetic approaches in Arabidopsis has led to the identification of oxidoreductase and acyltransferase genes involved in the biosynthesis of these polymers. However, major questions about the underlying polymer structure, biochemistry, and intracellular versus extracellular assembly remain to be resolved. The analysis of plant lines with modified cutins and suberins has begun to reveal the inter-relationships between the composition and function of these polymers.

Synthesis and characterization of novel biopolyesters from suberin and model comonomers

The synthesis of novel polyesters from model long-chain aliphatic monomers and from suberin reactive aliphatic fragments was conducted using mild polycondensation or polytransesterification conditions. The ensuing polyesters were characterized by means of various techniques. When mixtures of simple suberin-like monomers were used, the ensuing polyesters had very regular structures, with melting temperatures around 80 degrees C and glass transitions below room temperature. This first systematic study of the exploitation of suberin as a precursor to novel aliphatic polyesters confirmed the huge potential of using this abundant renewable resource to prepare macromolecular materials for promising applications.