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Lukesh JC, Andersen KA, Wallin KK, Raines RT. Organocatalysts of oxidative protein folding inspired by protein disulfide isomerase. Org Biomol Chem 2014; 12:8598-602. [PMID: 25266373 PMCID: PMC4237591 DOI: 10.1039/c4ob01738b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Organocatalysts derived from diethylenetriamine effect the rapid isomerization of non-native protein disulfide bonds to native ones. These catalysts contain a pendant hydrophobic moiety to encourage interaction with the non-native state, and two thiol groups with low pKa values that form a disulfide bond with a high E°' value.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Lukesh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Lukesh JC, VanVeller B, Raines RT. Thiols and selenols as electron-relay catalysts for disulfide-bond reduction. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:12901-4. [PMID: 24123634 PMCID: PMC3885359 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201307481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Pass them on! Dithiobutylamine immobilized on a resin is a useful reagent for the reduction of disulfide bonds. Its ability to reduce a disulfide bond in a protein is enhanced greatly if used along with a soluble strained cyclic disulfide or mixed diselenide that relays electrons from the resin to the protein. This electron-relay catalysis system provides distinct advantages over the use of excess soluble reducing agent alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C. Lukesh
- Department of Chemistry, 1101 University Avenue, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Brett VanVeller
- Department of Chemistry, 1101 University Avenue, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Ronald T. Raines
- Department of Chemistry, 1101 University Avenue, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA, Fax: (+1) 1-608-890-2583, Homepage: http://www.biochem.wisc.edu/faculty/raines/lab. Department of Biochemistry, 433 Babcock Drive, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Lukesh JC, VanVeller B, Raines RT. Thiols and Selenols as Electron-Relay Catalysts for Disulfide-Bond Reduction. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201307481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Lukesh JC, Palte MJ, Raines RT. A potent, versatile disulfide-reducing agent from aspartic acid. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:4057-9. [PMID: 22353145 PMCID: PMC3353773 DOI: 10.1021/ja211931f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Dithiothreitol (DTT) is the standard reagent for reducing disulfide bonds between and within biological molecules. At neutral pH, however, >99% of DTT thiol groups are protonated and thus unreactive. Herein, we report on (2S)-2-amino-1,4-dimercaptobutane (dithiobutylamine or DTBA), a dithiol that can be synthesized from l-aspartic acid in a few high-yielding steps that are amenable to a large-scale process. DTBA has thiol pK(a) values that are ~1 unit lower than those of DTT and forms a disulfide with a similar E°' value. DTBA reduces disulfide bonds in both small molecules and proteins faster than does DTT. The amino group of DTBA enables its isolation by cation-exchange and facilitates its conjugation. These attributes indicate that DTBA is a superior reagent for reducing disulfide bonds in aqueous solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C. Lukesh
- Department
of Chemistry, Medical Scientist Training Program, Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology Graduate
Training Program, and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin−Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
53706, United States
| | - Michael J. Palte
- Department
of Chemistry, Medical Scientist Training Program, Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology Graduate
Training Program, and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin−Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
53706, United States
| | - Ronald T. Raines
- Department
of Chemistry, Medical Scientist Training Program, Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology Graduate
Training Program, and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin−Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
53706, United States
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Yu LL, Dong XY, Sun Y. Ion-exchange resins facilitate like-charged protein refolding: Effects of porous solid phase properties. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1225:168-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.12.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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6
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Modulating the synthetase activity of penicillin G acylase in organic media by addition of N-methylimidazole: Using vinyl acetate as activated acyl donor. J Biotechnol 2011; 153:111-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2011.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2010] [Revised: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 03/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Beld J, Woycechowsky KJ, Hilvert D. Diselenides as universal oxidative folding catalysts of diverse proteins. J Biotechnol 2010; 150:481-9. [PMID: 20933552 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2010.09.956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Small-molecule diselenides show considerable potential as catalysts of oxidative protein folding. To explore their scope, diselenide-containing redox buffers were used to promote the folding of proteins that varied in properties such as size, overall tertiary structure, number of disulfide bonds, pI value, and difficulty of in vitro folding. Diselenides are able to catalyze the oxidative folding of all proteins tested, providing significant increases in both rate and yield relative to analogous disulfides. Compared to the disulfide-linked dimer of glutathione (the most commonly used oxidant for in vitro protein folding), selenoglutathione provided markedly improved efficiencies in the folding of biotechnologically important proteins such as hirudin, lysozyme, human epidermal growth factor and interferon α-2a. Selenoglutathione also enhances the renaturation of more challenging targets such as bovine serum albumin, whose native state contains 17 disulfide bonds, and the Fab fragment of an antibody. In the latter case, micromolar amounts of selenoglutathione are able to match the modest yield provided by a previously optimized redox buffer, which contains millimolar levels of glutathione. Taken together, the folding reactions of these diverse proteins exemplify the advantages and limitations of diselenide catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris Beld
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zürich, Wolfgang Paulistrasse 10, CH-8006 Zürich, Switzerland
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Madar DJ, Patel AS, Lees WJ. Comparison of the oxidative folding of lysozyme at a high protein concentration using aromatic thiols versus glutathione. J Biotechnol 2009; 142:214-9. [PMID: 19477205 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2009.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2008] [Revised: 05/11/2009] [Accepted: 05/19/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The production of proteins using recombinant DNA technology often requires the use of in vitro protein folding. In order to facilitate in vitro protein folding, a redox buffer is added to the protein folding mixture. The redox buffer is composed of a small molecule disulfide and/or a small molecule thiol. Recently, redox buffers containing aromatic thiols have been shown to be an improvement over traditional redox buffers such as glutathione. For in vitro protein folding to be relevant to protein production on a larger scale, high protein concentrations are required to avoid large volumes of folding buffer. Therefore, we investigated the in vitro folding of lysozyme at 1 mg/mL instead of the traditional 0.1 mg/mL. Aromatic thiols and aromatic disulfides were compared directly with glutathione and glutathione disulfide, the most commonly used redox buffer. Folding experiments at pH 7 using aromatic thiols increased the yield by 20-40% and the folding rate constants by as much as 11 times relative to glutathione. At pH 8, improvements in yields of up to 25% and up to a 7-fold increase in folding rate constants were demonstrated. The effect of aromatic disulfide concentration was also investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Madar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
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Lees WJ. Small-molecule catalysts of oxidative protein folding. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2008; 12:740-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 08/10/2008] [Accepted: 08/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Beld J, Woycechowsky KJ, Hilvert D. Catalysis of Oxidative Protein Folding by Small-Molecule Diselenides. Biochemistry 2008; 47:6985-7. [DOI: 10.1021/bi8008906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joris Beld
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zürich, Hönggerberg HCI F339, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Kenneth J. Woycechowsky
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zürich, Hönggerberg HCI F339, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Donald Hilvert
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zürich, Hönggerberg HCI F339, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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Abstract
Determination of a macromolecular structure using x-ray diffraction is a multistep process that involves a plethora of techniques involving molecular biology, bioinformatics, and physical sciences. Counterintuitively, the success of any or all individual steps does not guarantee the success of the overall process. This review examines the difficulties presented by each step on the path from a gene to the final publication, together with certain lucky (or unlucky) circumstances that can affect the velocity along that path.
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Hsu CY, Lin HY, Thomas JL, Wu BT, Chou TC. Incorporation of styrene enhances recognition of ribonuclease A by molecularly imprinted polymers. Biosens Bioelectron 2006; 22:355-63. [PMID: 16781138 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2006.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2005] [Revised: 02/15/2006] [Accepted: 05/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Ribonuclease A (RNase A) is an RNA-cleaving enzyme characterized by its high conformational stability and strong catalytic activity. This enzyme is ubiquitous in living organisms and is difficult to inactivate. In polymerase chain reaction (PCR) RNase activity is removed by adding inhibitors. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) with high selectivity, high stability, low cost and facile synthesis could prove useful in extraction of target molecules, such as RNase A, from reaction mixtures. In this investigation, MIPs were synthesized from the monomers styrene and polyethyleneglycol 400 dimethacrylate (PEG400DMA) in several different ratios. Styrene as a functional monomer gave MIPs with a higher affinity for RNase A than other functional monomers tested, according to both enzyme-linked immnuosorbent assay (ELISA) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The optimum volume ratio of styrene/PEG400DMA was 20/100 at 25 degrees C, and this ratio maximized the rebinding efficiency of RNase A to MIPs. Isothermal titration calorimetry was also used, and could be useful to design the composition of molecularly imprinted polymers for various target molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Yi Hsu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan, ROC
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Gough JD, Barrett EJ, Silva Y, Lees WJ. ortho- and meta-substituted aromatic thiols are efficient redox buffers that increase the folding rate of a disulfide-containing protein. J Biotechnol 2006; 125:39-47. [PMID: 16616966 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2006.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2005] [Revised: 01/23/2006] [Accepted: 02/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Thiol based redox buffers are used to enhance the folding rates of disulfide-containing proteins in vitro. Traditionally, small molecule aliphatic thiols such as glutathione are employed. Recently, we have demonstrated that aromatic thiols can further enhance protein-folding rates. In the presence of para-substituted aromatic thiols the folding rate of a disulfide-containing protein was increased by 4-23 times over that measured for glutathione. However, several important practical issues remain to be addressed. Aromatic thiols have never been tested in the presence of denaturants such as guanidine hydrochloride. Only two of the para-substituted aromatic thiols previously examined are commercially available. To expand the number of aromatic thiols for protein folding, several commercially available meta- and ortho-substituted aromatic thiols were studied. Furthermore, an ortho-substituted aromatic thiol, easily obtained from inexpensive starting materials, was investigated. Folding rates of scrambled ribonuclease A at pH 6.0, 7.0 and 7.7, with ortho- and meta-substituted aromatic thiols, were up to 10 times greater than those with glutathione. In the presence of the common denaturant guanidine hydrochloride (0.5M) aromatic thiols provided 100% yield of active protein while maintaining equivalent folding rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Gough
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
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Kruusma J, Benham AM, Williams JAG, Kataky R. An introduction to thiol redox proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum and a review of current electrochemical methods of detection of thiols. Analyst 2006; 131:459-73. [PMID: 16568160 DOI: 10.1039/b515874e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
This aim of this paper is to expound the complexity of thiol redox systems in the endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotic cells to the electroanalytical community. A summary of the state of the art in electrochemical methods for detection of thiols gives an insight into the challenges that need to be addressed to bridge the disparity between current analytical techniques and applications in a 'real' biological scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaanus Kruusma
- Chemistry Department and Centre for Bioactive Chemistry, University of Durham, South Road, Durham, UKDH1 4HT
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15
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Moroder L. Isosteric replacement of sulfur with other chalcogens in peptides and proteins. J Pept Sci 2005; 11:187-214. [PMID: 15782428 DOI: 10.1002/psc.654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The review addresses the functional and structural properties of the two series of chalcogen analogues of amino acids in peptides and proteins, the methionine and the serine/cysteine series, and discusses the synthesis of the related selenium/tellurium analogues as well as their use in peptide synthesis and protein expression. Advances in synthetic methodologies and recombinant technologies and their combined applications in native and expressed protein ligation allows the isomorphous character of selenium- and tellurium-containing amino acids to be exploited for production of heavy metal mutants of proteins and thus to facilitate the phasing problem in x-ray crystallography. In addition, selenocysteine has been recognized as an ideal tool for the production of selenoenzymes with new catalytic activities. Moreover, the fully isomorphous character of disulfide replacement with diselenide is well suited to increase the robustness of cystine frameworks in cystine-rich peptides and proteins and for the de novo design of even non-native cystine frameworks by exploiting the highly negative redox potential of selenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Moroder
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biochemie, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany.
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Gough JD, Lees WJ. Effects of redox buffer properties on the folding of a disulfide-containing protein: dependence upon pH, thiol pKa, and thiol concentration. J Biotechnol 2005; 115:279-90. [PMID: 15639090 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2004.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2004] [Revised: 09/20/2004] [Accepted: 09/27/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Aliphatic thiols are effective as redox buffers for folding non-native disulfide-containing proteins into their native state at high pH values (8.0-8.5) but not at neutral pH values (6-7.5). In developing more efficient and flexible redox buffers, a series of aromatic thiols was analyzed for its ability to fold scrambled ribonuclease A (sRNase A). At equivalent pH values, the aromatic thiols folded sRNase A 10-23 times faster at pH 6.0, 7-12 times faster at pH 7.0, and 5-8 times faster at pH 7.7 than the standard aliphatic thiol glutathione. Similar correlations between thiol pK(a) values and folding rates at each pH value suggest that the apparent folding rate constants (k(app)) are a function of the redox buffer properties (pH, thiol pK(a) and [RSH]). Fitting the observed data to a three-variable model (logk(app)=-4.216(+/-0.030)+0.5816(+/-0.0036)pH-0.233(+/-0.004)pK(a)+log(1-e(-0.98(+/-0.02)[RSH]))) gave good statistics: r2=0.915, s=0.10.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Gough
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
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Vallejo LF, Rinas U. Strategies for the recovery of active proteins through refolding of bacterial inclusion body proteins. Microb Cell Fact 2004; 3:11. [PMID: 15345063 PMCID: PMC517725 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-3-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2004] [Accepted: 09/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in generating active proteins through refolding of bacterial inclusion body proteins are summarized in conjunction with a short overview on inclusion body isolation and solubilization procedures. In particular, the pros and cons of well-established robust refolding techniques such as direct dilution as well as less common ones such as diafiltration or chromatographic processes including size exclusion chromatography, matrix- or affinity-based techniques and hydrophobic interaction chromatography are discussed. Moreover, the effect of physical variables (temperature and pressure) as well as the presence of buffer additives on the refolding process is elucidated. In particular, the impact of protein stabilizing or destabilizing low- and high-molecular weight additives as well as micellar and liposomal systems on protein refolding is illustrated. Also, techniques mimicking the principles encountered during in vivo folding such as processes based on natural and artificial chaperones and propeptide-assisted protein refolding are presented. Moreover, the special requirements for the generation of disulfide bonded proteins and the specific problems and solutions, which arise during process integration are discussed. Finally, the different strategies are examined regarding their applicability for large-scale production processes or high-throughput screening procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Felipe Vallejo
- Biochemical Engineering Division, GBF German Research Center for Biotechnology, Mascheroder Weg 1, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ursula Rinas
- Biochemical Engineering Division, GBF German Research Center for Biotechnology, Mascheroder Weg 1, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) catalyzes the formation of native disulfide pairings in secretory proteins. The ability of PDI to act as a disulfide isomerase makes it an essential enzyme in eukaryotes. PDI also fulfills other important roles. Recent studies have emphasized the importance of PDI as an oxidant in the endoplasmic reticulum. Intriguing questions remain regarding how PDI is able to catalyze both isomerization and oxidation in vivo. Studies of PDI and its homologues have led to the development of small-molecule folding catalysts that are able to accelerate disulfide isomerization in vitro and in vivo. PDI will continue to provide both an inspiration for the design of such artificial foldases and a benchmark with which to gauge the success of those designs. Here, we review current understanding of the chemistry and biology of PDI, its homologues, and small molecules that mimic its catalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Kersteen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin--Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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