Trapping of intermediates with substrate analog HBOCoA in the polymerizations catalyzed by class III polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) synthase from Allochromatium vinosum

The coenzyme A biosynthetic pathway: A new tool for prodrug bioactivation

Prodrugs account for more than 5% of pharmaceuticals approved worldwide. Over the past decades several prodrug design strategies have been firmly established; however, only a few functional groups remain amenable to this approach. The aim of this overview is to highlight the use of coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthetic enzymes as a recently explored bioactivation scheme and provide information about its scope of utility. This emerging tool is likely to have a strong impact on future medicinal and biological studies as it offers promiscuity, orthogonal selectivity, and the capability of assembling exceptionally large molecules.

Role of PhaC Type I and Type II Enzymes during PHA Biosynthesis

PHA synthases (PhaC) are grouped into four classes based on the kinetics and mechanisms of reaction. The grouping of PhaC enzymes into four classes is dependent on substrate specificity, according to the preference in forming short-chain-length (scl) or medium-chain-length (mcl) polymers: Class I, Class III and Class IV produce scl-PHAs depending on propionate, butyrate, valerate and hexanoate precursors, while Class II PhaC synthesize mcl-PHAs based on the alkane (C6 to C14) precursors. PHA synthases of Class I, in particular PhaC_Cs from Chromobacterium USM2 and PhaC_Cn/RePhaC1 from Cupriavidus necator/Ralstonia eutropha, have been analysed and the crystal structures of the C-domains have been determined. PhaC_Cn/RePhaC1 was also studied by X-ray absorption fine-structure (XAFS) analysis. Models have been proposed for dimerization, catalysis mechanism, substrate recognition and affinity, product formation, and product egress route. The assays based on amino acid substitution by mutagenesis have been useful to validate the hypothesis on the role of amino acids in catalysis and in accommodation of bulky substrates, and for the synthesis of PHB copolymers and medium-chain-length PHA polymers with optimized chemical properties.

Structure of the Catalytic Domain of the Class I Polyhydroxybutyrate Synthase from Cupriavidus necator

Polyhydroxybutyrate synthase (PhaC) catalyzes the polymerization of 3-(R)-hydroxybutyryl-coenzyme A as a means of carbon storage in many bacteria. The resulting polymers can be used to make biodegradable materials with properties similar to those of thermoplastics and are an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics. A full biochemical and mechanistic understanding of this process has been hindered in part by a lack of structural information on PhaC. Here we present the first structure of the catalytic domain (residues 201-589) of the class I PhaC from Cupriavidus necator (formerly Ralstonia eutropha) to 1.80 Å resolution. We observe a symmetrical dimeric architecture in which the active site of each monomer is separated from the other by ∼33 Å across an extensive dimer interface, suggesting a mechanism in which polyhydroxybutyrate biosynthesis occurs at a single active site. The structure additionally highlights key side chain interactions within the active site that play likely roles in facilitating catalysis, leading to the proposal of a modified mechanistic scheme involving two distinct roles for the active site histidine. We also identify putative substrate entrance and product egress routes within the enzyme, which are discussed in the context of previously reported biochemical observations. Our structure lays a foundation for further biochemical and structural characterization of PhaC, which could assist in engineering efforts for the production of eco-friendly materials.

Study of Class I and Class III Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) Synthases with Substrates Containing a Modified Side Chain

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are carbon and energy storage polymers produced by a variety of microbial organisms under nutrient-limited conditions. They have been considered as an environmentally friendly alternative to oil-based plastics due to their renewability, versatility, and biodegradability. PHA synthase (PhaC) plays a central role in PHA biosynthesis, in which its activity and substrate specificity are major factors in determining the productivity and properties of the produced polymers. However, the effects of modifying the substrate side chain are not well understood because of the difficulty to accessing the desired analogues. In this report, a series of 3-(R)-hydroxyacyl coenzyme A (HACoA) analogues were synthesized and tested with class I synthases from Chromobacterium sp. USM2 (PhaCCs and A479S-PhaCCs) and Caulobacter crescentus (PhaCCc) as well as class III synthase from Allochromatium vinosum (PhaECAv). It was found that, while different PHA synthases displayed distinct preference with regard to the length of the alkyl side chains, they could withstand moderate side chain modifications such as terminal unsaturated bonds and the azide group. Specifically, the specific activity of PhaCCs toward propynyl analogue (HHxyCoA) was only 5-fold less than that toward the classical substrate HBCoA. The catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) of PhaECAv toward azide analogue (HABCoA) was determined to be 2.86 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), which was 6.2% of the value of HBCoA (4.62 × 10(6) M(-1) s(-1)) measured in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA). These side chain modifications may be employed to introduce new material functions to PHAs as well as to study PHA biogenesis via click-chemistry, in which the latter remains unknown and is important for metabolic engineering to produce PHAs economically.