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Don CG, Smieško M. Out‐compute drug side effects: Focus on cytochrome P450 2D6 modeling. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/wcms.1366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Charleen G. Don
- Department of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Martin Smieško
- Department of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
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Aswathy L, Jisha RS, Masand VH, Gajbhiye JM, Shibi IG. Computational strategies to explore antimalarial thiazine alkaloid lead compounds based on an Australian marine sponge Plakortis Lita. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2016; 35:2407-2429. [PMID: 27494993 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2016.1220870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In this work, an attempt was made to propose new leads based on the natural scaffold Thiaplakortone-A active against malaria. The 2D QSAR studies suggested that three descriptors correlate with the anti-malarial activity with an R2 value of 0.814. Robustness, reliability, and predictive power of the model were tested by internal validation, external validation, Y-scrambling, and applicability domain analysis. HQSAR studies were carried out as an additional tool to find the sub-structural fingerprints. The CoMFA and CoMSIA models gave Q2 values of 0.813 and 0.647, and [Formula: see text] values of 0.994 and 0.984, respectively. Using the 2D-QSAR equation, the activity values of the seven modified compounds were calculated and it was found that three molecules showed good anti-malarial activity. Molecular docking of the 42 Thiaplakortone-A derivatives with Plasmodium falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (PfCDPK1) was carried out to find out protein-ligand interactions. Data mining of the bioassay data-set AID: 504850 using the classifier based on Random Forest of Weka suggested that all of the eight molecules selected and three out of the seven virtual molecules were anti-malarial active. Both the virtual molecules and drug molecules were docked with CYP3A4, indicating that the virtual molecules could metabolize easily. Toxicity studies using Osiris shows that three molecules showed no toxic characters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilly Aswathy
- a Department of Chemistry , Sree Narayana College , Thiruvananthapuram , Kerala , India
| | - Radhakrishnan S Jisha
- a Department of Chemistry , Sree Narayana College , Thiruvananthapuram , Kerala , India
| | - Vijay H Masand
- b Department of Chemistry , Vidya Bharati College , Camp, Amravati , Maharashtra , India
| | - Jayant M Gajbhiye
- c Division of Organic Chemistry , CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory , Pune , India
| | - Indira G Shibi
- a Department of Chemistry , Sree Narayana College , Thiruvananthapuram , Kerala , India
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Martiny VY, Carbonell P, Chevillard F, Moroy G, Nicot AB, Vayer P, Villoutreix BO, Miteva MA. Integrated structure- and ligand-based in silico approach to predict inhibition of cytochrome P450 2D6. Bioinformatics 2015; 31:3930-7. [PMID: 26315915 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btv486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION Cytochrome P450 (CYP) is a superfamily of enzymes responsible for the metabolism of drugs, xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. CYP2D6 metabolizes about 30% of drugs and predicting potential CYP2D6 inhibition is important in early-stage drug discovery. RESULTS We developed an original in silico approach for the prediction of CYP2D6 inhibition combining the knowledge of the protein structure and its dynamic behavior in response to the binding of various ligands and machine learning modeling. This approach includes structural information for CYP2D6 based on the available crystal structures and molecular dynamic simulations (MD) that we performed to take into account conformational changes of the binding site. We performed modeling using three learning algorithms--support vector machine, RandomForest and NaiveBayesian--and we constructed combined models based on topological information of known CYP2D6 inhibitors and predicted binding energies computed by docking on both X-ray and MD protein conformations. In addition, we identified three MD-derived structures that are capable all together to better discriminate inhibitors and non-inhibitors compared with individual CYP2D6 conformations, thus ensuring complementary ligand profiles. Inhibition models based on classical molecular descriptors and predicted binding energies were able to predict CYP2D6 inhibition with an accuracy of 78% on the training set and 75% on the external validation set.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Y Martiny
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S 973 Inserm, Paris 75013, France, Inserm UMR-S 973, Molécules Thérapeutiques In Silico, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
| | - Pablo Carbonell
- Research Programme on Biomedical Informatics (GRIB), Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Florent Chevillard
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S 973 Inserm, Paris 75013, France
| | - Gautier Moroy
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S 973 Inserm, Paris 75013, France, Inserm UMR-S 973, Molécules Thérapeutiques In Silico, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
| | | | - Philippe Vayer
- BioInformatic Modelling Department, Technologie Servier, 45007 Orléans Cedex1, France
| | - Bruno O Villoutreix
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S 973 Inserm, Paris 75013, France, Inserm UMR-S 973, Molécules Thérapeutiques In Silico, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
| | - Maria A Miteva
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S 973 Inserm, Paris 75013, France, Inserm UMR-S 973, Molécules Thérapeutiques In Silico, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
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Ramesh M, Bharatam PV. Importance of hydrophobic parameters in identifying appropriate pose of CYP substrates in cytochromes. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 71:15-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Computational analysis of CYP3A4-mediated metabolism to investigate drug interactions between anti-TB and anti-HIV drugs in HIV/TB co-infection. Med Chem Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-013-0680-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Nagy G, Oostenbrink C. Rationalization of stereospecific binding of propranolol to cytochrome P450 2D6 by free energy calculations. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2012; 41:1065-76. [PMID: 23086294 PMCID: PMC3509327 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-012-0865-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Revised: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 09/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Cytochrome P450 2D6 is a major drug-metabolising enzyme with a wide substrate range. A single-point mutation introduced in this enzyme induces stereoselective binding of R and S-propranolol whereas the wild type has no preference. The system has previously been studied both experimentally and computationally (de Graaf et al. in Eur Biophys J 36:589–599, 2007a). The in silico study reported hysteresis and significant deviations from closure of thermodynamic cycles, probably because of lack of sampling. Here, we focus on the effect of prolonged simulation time and enhanced sampling methods, such as Hamiltonian replica exchange, to reduce these problems and to improve the precision of free energy calculations. Finally we rationalize the results at a molecular level and compare data with experimental findings and previously estimated free energies. Graphical Abstract Propranolol (PPD) binds stereospecifically to cytochrome P450 2D6, if the mutation F483A is introduced, by reducing binding affinity to R-PPD. This observation has previously been studied by molecular dynamics, by use of several different thermodynamic cycles. Previous computational results suffered from internal inconsistencies, probably because of insufficient sampling. Here we use prolonged simulation time and Hamiltonian replica exchange to overcome the inconsistencies, and give a possible rationalization of the phenomenon at a molecular level.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabor Nagy
- Institute of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Chris Oostenbrink
- Institute of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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Campagna-Slater V, Pottel J, Therrien E, Cantin LD, Moitessier N. Development of a computational tool to rival experts in the prediction of sites of metabolism of xenobiotics by p450s. J Chem Inf Model 2012; 52:2471-83. [PMID: 22916680 DOI: 10.1021/ci3003073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of xenobiotics--and more specifically drugs--in the liver is a critical process controlling their half-life. Although there exist experimental methods, which measure the metabolic stability of xenobiotics and identify their metabolites, developing higher throughput predictive methods is an avenue of research. It is expected that predicting the chemical nature of the metabolites would be an asset for designing safer drugs and/or drugs with modulated half-lives. We have developed IMPACTS (In-silico Metabolism Prediction by Activated Cytochromes and Transition States), a computational tool combining docking to metabolic enzymes, transition state modeling, and rule-based substrate reactivity prediction to predict the site of metabolism (SoM) of xenobiotics. Its application to sets of CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 substrates and comparison to experts' predictions demonstrates its accuracy and significance. IMPACTS identified an experimentally observed SoM in the top 2 predicted sites for 77% of the substrates, while the accuracy of biotransformation experts' prediction was 65%. Application of IMPACTS to external sets and comparison of its accuracy to those of eleven other methods further validated the method implemented in IMPACTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Campagna-Slater
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St W, Montreal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
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Yao Y, Zhang T, Xiong Y, Li L, Huo J, Wei DQ. Mutation probability of cytochrome P450 based on a genetic algorithm and support vector machine. Biotechnol J 2011; 6:1367-76. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201000450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Revised: 02/21/2011] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Leach AG, Kidley NJ. Quantitatively Interpreted Enhanced Inhibition of Cytochrome P450s by Heteroaromatic Rings Containing Nitrogen. J Chem Inf Model 2011; 51:1048-63. [DOI: 10.1021/ci2000506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew G. Leach
- AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - Nathan J. Kidley
- AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
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A computational study of CYP3A4 mediated drug interaction profiles for anti-HIV drugs. J Mol Model 2010; 17:1847-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s00894-010-0890-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 10/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Trubetskoy O, Finel M, Trubetskoy V. High-throughput screening technologies for drug glucuronidation profiling. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 60:1061-7. [DOI: 10.1211/jpp.60.8.0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A significant number of endogenous and exogenous compounds, including many therapeutic agents, are metabolized in humans via glucuronidation, catalysed by uridine diphosphoglucurono-syltransferases (UGTs). The study of the UGTs is a growing field of research, with constantly accumulated and updated information regarding UGT structure, purification, substrate specificity and inhibition, including clinically relevant drug interactions. Development of reliable UGT assays for the assessment of individual isoform substrate specificity and for the discovery of novel isoform-specific substrates and inhibitors is crucial for understanding the function and regulation of the UGT enzyme family and its clinical and pharmacological relevance. High-throughput screening (HTS) is a powerful technology used to search for novel substrates and inhibitors for a wide variety of targets. However, application of HTS in the context of UGTs is complicated because of the poor stability, low levels of expression, low affinity and broad substrate specificity of the enzymes, combined with difficulties in obtaining individual UGT isoforms in purified format, and insufficient information regarding isoform-specific substrates and inhibitors. This review examines the current status of HTS assays used in the search for novel UGT substrates and inhibitors, emphasizing advancements and challenges in HTS technologies for drug glucuronidation profiling, and discusses possible avenues for future advancement of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Trubetskoy
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Moshe Finel
- DDTC, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Ewing T, Feher M. Forecasting CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 Risk with a Global/Local Fusion Model of CYP450 Inhibition. Mol Inform 2010; 29:127-41. [DOI: 10.1002/minf.200900040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2009] [Accepted: 09/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Wang B, Yang LP, Zhang XZ, Huang SQ, Bartlam M, Zhou SF. New insights into the structural characteristics and functional relevance of the human cytochrome P450 2D6 enzyme. Drug Metab Rev 2010; 41:573-643. [PMID: 19645588 DOI: 10.1080/03602530903118729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
To date, the crystal structures of at least 12 human CYPs (1A2, 2A6, 2A13, 2C8, 2C9, 2D6, 2E1, 2R1, 3A4, 7A1, 8A1, and 46A1) have been determined. CYP2D6 accounts for only a small percentage of all hepatic CYPs (< 2%), but it metabolizes approximately 25% of clinically used drugs with significant polymorphisms. CYP2D6 also metabolizes procarcinogens and neurotoxins, such as 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline, and indolealkylamines. Moreover, the enzyme utilizes hydroxytryptamines and neurosteroids as endogenous substrates. Typical CYP2D6 substrates are usually lipophilic bases with an aromatic ring and a nitrogen atom, which can be protonated at physiological pH. Substrate binding is generally followed by oxidation (5-7 A) from the proposed nitrogen-Asp301 interaction. A number of homology models have been constructed to explore the structural features of CYP2D6, while antibody studies also provide useful structural information. Site-directed mutagenesis studies have demonstrated that Glu216, Asp301, Phe120, Phe481, and Phe483 play important roles in determining the binding of ligands to CYP2D6. The structure of human CYP2D6 has been recently determined and shows the characteristic CYP fold observed for other members of the CYP superfamily. The lengths and orientations of the individual secondary structural elements in the CYP2D6 structure are similar to those seen in other human CYP2 members, such as CYP2C9 and 2C8. The 2D6 structure has a well-defined active-site cavity located above the heme group with a volume of approximately 540 A(3), which is larger than equivalent cavities in CYP2A6 (260 A(3)), 1A2 (375 A(3)), and 2E1 (190 A(3)), but smaller than those in CYP3A4 (1385 A(3)) and 2C8 (1438 A(3)). Further studies are required to delineate the molecular mechanisms involved in CYP2D6 ligand interactions and their implications for drug development and clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Guangdong Women and Children's Hospital, Guangzhou, China
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Bonn B, Masimirembwa CM, Castagnoli N. Exploration of Catalytic Properties of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 Through Metabolic Studies of Levorphanol and Levallorphan. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 38:187-99. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.028670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Bergmann R, Liljefors T, Sørensen MD, Zamora I. SHOP: receptor-based scaffold HOPping by GRID-based similarity searches. J Chem Inf Model 2009; 49:658-69. [PMID: 19265417 DOI: 10.1021/ci800391v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A new field-derived 3D method for receptor-based scaffold hopping, implemented in the software SHOP, is presented. Information from a protein-ligand complex is utilized to substitute a fragment of the ligand with another fragment from a database of synthetically accessible scaffolds. A GRID-based interaction profile of the receptor and geometrical descriptions of a ligand scaffold are used to obtain new scaffolds with different structural features and are able to replace the original scaffold in the protein-ligand complex. An enrichment study was successfully performed verifying the ability of SHOP to find known active CDK2 scaffolds in a database. Additionally, SHOP was used for suggesting new inhibitors of p38 MAP kinase. Four p38 complexes were used to perform six scaffold searches. Several new scaffolds were suggested, and the resulting compounds were successfully docked into the query proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rikke Bergmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen O, Denmark.
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Fontaine F, Cross S, Plasencia G, Pastor M, Zamora I. SHOP: A Method For Structure-Based Fragment and Scaffold Hopping. ChemMedChem 2009; 4:427-39. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200800355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Czodrowski P, Kriegl JM, Scheuerer S, Fox T. Computational approaches to predict drug metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2009; 5:15-27. [DOI: 10.1517/17425250802568009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Stjernschantz E, Vermeulen NPE, Oostenbrink C. Computational prediction of drug binding and rationalisation of selectivity towards cytochromes P450. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2008; 4:513-27. [PMID: 18484912 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.4.5.513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early in-vitro consideration of metabolism and inhibition of cytochrome P450 has proven its merits over the last 15 years. Simultaneously, many computational drug-design methods have been developed, and are being applied to study the interactions between drug candidates and cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s). OBJECTIVE This review discusses the recent advances of these methods and the implications that are specific for P450s. METHODS Mainly focusing on the prediction of binding affinity and ligand selectivity, we outline the applicability of the different methods to answer specific questions. Special emphasis is put on the different levels of theory that are being used in recent computational descriptions of ligand-P450 interactions. CONCLUSION P450s offer an additional challenge for computational methods, considering the ambiguities of the catalytic cycle and the significant flexibility of the active site. Different computational methods display different limitations, which is crucial to take into account when choosing the method appropriate to each application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Stjernschantz
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Leiden/Amsterdam Centre for Drug Research, Division of Molecular Toxicology, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Ahlström MM, Ridderström M, Zamora I. CYP2C9 Structure−Metabolism Relationships: Substrates, Inhibitors, and Metabolites. J Med Chem 2007; 50:5382-91. [DOI: 10.1021/jm070745g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marie M. Ahlström
- Discovery DMPK and Bioanalytical Chemistry, AstraZeneca R&D Mölndal, SE-431 83 Mölndal, Sweden, Department of Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry, Göteborg University, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden, Lead Molecular Design, S.L., Vallés 96-102 (27) E-08190, Sant Cugat del Vallés, Spain, and Institut Municipal d'Investigació Medica (IMIM), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Doctor Aiguader 80, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marianne Ridderström
- Discovery DMPK and Bioanalytical Chemistry, AstraZeneca R&D Mölndal, SE-431 83 Mölndal, Sweden, Department of Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry, Göteborg University, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden, Lead Molecular Design, S.L., Vallés 96-102 (27) E-08190, Sant Cugat del Vallés, Spain, and Institut Municipal d'Investigació Medica (IMIM), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Doctor Aiguader 80, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ismael Zamora
- Discovery DMPK and Bioanalytical Chemistry, AstraZeneca R&D Mölndal, SE-431 83 Mölndal, Sweden, Department of Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry, Göteborg University, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden, Lead Molecular Design, S.L., Vallés 96-102 (27) E-08190, Sant Cugat del Vallés, Spain, and Institut Municipal d'Investigació Medica (IMIM), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Doctor Aiguader 80, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
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