Identifying Allosteric Binding Sites in Proteins with a Two-State Go̅ Model for Novel Allosteric Effector Discovery

Allosteric modulation of SHP2: Quest from known to unknown

Src homology-2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-2 (SHP2) is a key regulatory factor in the cell cycle and its activating mutations play an important role in the development of various cancers, making it an important target for antitumor drugs. Due to the highly conserved amino acid sequence and positively charged nature of the active site of SHP2, it is difficult to discover inhibitors with high affinity for the catalytic site of SHP2 and sufficient cell permeability, making it considered an "undruggable" target. However, the discovery of allosteric regulation mechanisms provides new opportunities for transforming undruggable targets into druggable ones. Given the limitations of orthosteric inhibitors, SHP2 allosteric inhibitors have become a more selective and safer research direction. In this review, we elucidate the oncogenic mechanism of SHP2 and summarize the discovery methods of SHP2 allosteric inhibitors, providing new strategies for the design and improvement of SHP2 allosteric inhibitors.

Coevolution-based prediction of key allosteric residues for protein function regulation

Allostery is fundamental to many biological processes. Due to the distant regulation nature, how allosteric mutations, modifications, and effector binding impact protein function is difficult to forecast. In protein engineering, remote mutations cannot be rationally designed without large-scale experimental screening. Allosteric drugs have raised much attention due to their high specificity and possibility of overcoming existing drug-resistant mutations. However, optimization of allosteric compounds remains challenging. Here, we developed a novel computational method KeyAlloSite to predict allosteric site and to identify key allosteric residues (allo-residues) based on the evolutionary coupling model. We found that protein allosteric sites are strongly coupled to orthosteric site compared to non-functional sites. We further inferred key allo-residues by pairwise comparing the difference of evolutionary coupling scores of each residue in the allosteric pocket with the functional site. Our predicted key allo-residues are in accordance with previous experimental studies for typical allosteric proteins like BCR-ABL1, Tar, and PDZ3, as well as key cancer mutations. We also showed that KeyAlloSite can be used to predict key allosteric residues distant from the catalytic site that are important for enzyme catalysis. Our study demonstrates that weak coevolutionary couplings contain important information of protein allosteric regulation function. KeyAlloSite can be applied in studying the evolution of protein allosteric regulation, designing and optimizing allosteric drugs, and performing functional protein design and enzyme engineering.

Mechanistic Insights into the Long-range Allosteric Regulation of KRAS Via Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1) Scaffold Upon SPRED1 Loading

Allosteric regulation is the most direct and efficient way of regulating protein function, wherein proteins transmit the perturbations at one site to another distinct functional site. Deciphering the mechanism of allosteric regulation is of vital importance for the comprehension of both physiological and pathological events in vivo as well as the rational allosteric drug design. However, it remains challenging to elucidate dominant allosteric signal transduction pathways, especially for large and multi-component protein machineries where long-range allosteric regulation exits. One of the quintessential examples having long-range allosteric regulation is the ternary complex, SPRED1-RAS-neurofibromin type 1 (NF1, a RAS GTPase-activating protein), in which SPRED1 facilitates RAS-GTP hydrolysis by interacting with NF1 at a distal, allosteric site from the RAS binding site. To address the underlying mechanism, we performed extensive Gaussian accelerated molecular dynamics simulations and Markov state model analysis of KRAS-NF1 complex in the presence and absence of SPRED1. Our findings suggested that SPRED1 loading allosterically enhanced KRAS-NF1 binding, but hindered conformational transformation of the NF1 catalytic center for RAS hydrolysis. Moreover, we unveiled the possible allosteric pathways upon SPRED1 binding through difference contact network analysis. This study not only provided an in-depth mechanistic insight into the allosteric regulation of KRAS by SPRED1, but also shed light on the investigation of long-range allosteric regulation among complex macromolecular systems.

Harnessing Reversed Allosteric Communication: A Novel Strategy for Allosteric Drug Discovery

Allostery is a fundamental and extensive mechanism of intramolecular signal transmission. Allosteric drugs possess several unique pharmacological advantages over traditional orthosteric drugs, including greater selectivity, better physicochemical properties, and lower off-target toxicity. However, owing to the complexity of allosteric regulation, experimental approaches for the development of allosteric modulators are traditionally serendipitous. Recently, the reversed allosteric communication theory has been proposed, providing a feasible tool for the unbiased detection of allosteric sites. Herein, we review the latest research on the reversed allosteric communication effect using the examples of sirtuin 6, epidermal growth factor receptor, 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1, and Related to A and C kinases (RAC) serine/threonine protein kinase B and recapitulate the methodologies of reversed allosteric communication strategy. The novel reversed allosteric communication strategy greatly expands the horizon of allosteric site identification and allosteric mechanism exploration and is expected to accelerate an end-to-end framework for drug discovery.

Synthetic Neutralizing Peptides Inhibit the Host Cell Binding of Spike Protein and Block Infection of SARS-CoV-2

Antiviral treatments of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been extensively pursued to conquer the pandemic. To inhibit the viral entry to the host cell, we designed and obtained three peptide sequences via quartz crystal microbalance measurement screening, which showed high affinity at nanomole to the S1 subunit of the spike protein and wild-type SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus. Circular dichroism spectroscopy measurements revealed significant conformation changes of the S1 protein upon encounter with the three peptides. The peptides were able to effectively block the infection of a pseudovirus to 50% by inhibiting the host cell lines binding with the S1 protein, evidenced by the results from Western blotting and pseudovirus luciferase assay. Moreover, the combination of the three peptides could increase the inhibitory rate to 75%. In conclusion, the three chemically synthetic neutralizing peptides and their combinations hold promising potential as effective therapeutics in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19.

Untangling Dual-Targeting Therapeutic Mechanism of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Based on Reversed Allosteric Communication

Dual-targeting therapeutics by coadministration of allosteric and orthosteric drugs is drawing increased attention as a revolutionary strategy for overcoming the drug-resistance problems. It was further observed that the occupation of orthosteric sites by therapeutics agents has the potential to enhance allosteric ligand binding, which leads to improved potency of allosteric drugs. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), as one of the most critical anti-cancer targets belonging to the receptor tyrosine kinase family, represents a quintessential example. It was revealed that osimertinib, an ATP-competitive covalent EGFR inhibitor, remarkably enhanced the affinity of a recently developed allosteric inhibitor JBJ-04-125-02 for EGFRL858R/T790M. Here, we utilized extensive large-scale molecular dynamics simulations and the reversed allosteric communication to untangle the detailed molecular underpinning, in which occupation of osimertinib at the orthosteric site altered the overall conformational ensemble of EGFR mutant and reshaped the allosteric site via long-distance signaling. A unique intermediate state resembling the active conformation was identified, which was further stabilized by osimertinib loading. Based on the allosteric communication pathway, we predicted a novel allosteric site positioned around K867, E868, H893, and K960 within the intermediate state. Its correlation with the orthosteric site was validated by both structural and energetic analysis, and its low sequence conservation indicated the potential for selective targeting across the human kinome. Together, these findings not only provided a mechanistic basis for future clinical application of the dual-targeting therapeutics, but also explored an innovative perception of allosteric inhibition of tyrosine kinase signaling.

PASSer: Prediction of Allosteric Sites Server

Allostery is considered important in regulating protein's activity. Drug development depends on the understanding of allosteric mechanisms, especially the identification of allosteric sites, which is a prerequisite in drug discovery and design. Many computational methods have been developed for allosteric site prediction using pocket features and protein dynamics. Here, we present an ensemble learning method, consisting of eXtreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) and graph convolutional neural network (GCNN), to predict allosteric sites. Our model can learn physical properties and topology without any prior information, and shows good performance under multiple indicators. Prediction results showed that 84.9% of allosteric pockets in the test set appeared in the top 3 positions. The PASSer: Protein Allosteric Sites Server (https://passer.smu.edu), along with a command line interface (CLI, https://github.com/smutaogroup/passerCLI) provide insights for further analysis in drug discovery.

Discovery of cryptic allosteric sites using reversed allosteric communication by a combined computational and experimental strategy

Allostery, which is one of the most direct and efficient methods to fine-tune protein functions, has gained increasing recognition in drug discovery. However, there are several challenges associated with the identification of allosteric sites, which is the fundamental cornerstone of drug design. Previous studies on allosteric site predictions have focused on communication signals propagating from the allosteric sites to the orthosteric sites. However, recent biochemical studies have revealed that allosteric coupling is bidirectional and that orthosteric perturbations can modulate allosteric sites through reversed allosteric communication. Here, we proposed a new framework for the prediction of allosteric sites based on reversed allosteric communication using a combination of computational and experimental strategies (molecular dynamics simulations, Markov state models, and site-directed mutagenesis). The desirable performance of our approach was demonstrated by predicting the known allosteric site of the small molecule MDL-801 in nicotinamide dinucleotide (NAD⁺)-dependent protein lysine deacetylase sirtuin 6 (Sirt6). A potential novel cryptic allosteric site located around the L116, R119, and S120 residues within the dynamic ensemble of Sirt6 was identified. The allosteric effect of the predicted site was further quantified and validated using both computational and experimental approaches. This study proposed a state-of-the-art computational pipeline for detecting allosteric sites based on reversed allosteric communication. This method enabled the identification of a previously uncharacterized potential cryptic allosteric site on Sirt6, which provides a starting point for allosteric drug design that can aid the identification of candidate pockets in other therapeutic targets.

Using reversed allosteric communication, we performed MD simulations, MSMs, and mutagenesis experiments, to discover allosteric sites. It reproduced the known allosteric site for MDL-801 on Sirt6 and uncovered a novel cryptic allosteric Pocket X.

Peptide-enabled receptor-binding-quantum dots for enhanced detection and migration inhibition of cancer cells

We report the efforts to construct active targeting quantum dots using receptor-binding peptide for enhanced detection and migration inhibition of cancer cells. Peptide E5 has specific binding with chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), which is a transmembrane G-coupled receptor involved in the metastasis of various types of cancers. E5 was introduced to the surface of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots via biotin-streptavidin interactions. The constructed CXCR4-targeting quantum dots (E5@QDs) was observed to display improved detection sensitivity and significantly enhanced binding affinity for CXCR4 over-expressed cancer cells, and the ability to inhibit cancer cells migration induced by CXCL12.

Big data and artificial intelligence discover novel drugs targeting proteins without 3D structure and overcome the undruggable targets

The discovery of targeted drugs heavily relies on three-dimensional (3D) structures of target proteins. When the 3D structure of a protein target is unknown, it is very difficult to design its corresponding targeted drugs. Although the 3D structures of some proteins (the so-called undruggable targets) are known, their targeted drugs are still absent. As increasing crystal/cryogenic electron microscopy structures are deposited in Protein Data Bank, it is much more possible to discover the targeted drugs. Moreover, it is also highly probable to turn previous undruggable targets into druggable ones when we identify their hidden allosteric sites. In this review, we focus on the currently available advanced methods for the discovery of novel compounds targeting proteins without 3D structure and how to turn undruggable targets into druggable ones.

Disordered linkers in multidomain allosteric proteins: Entropic effect to favor the open state or enhanced local concentration to favor the closed state?

There are many multidomain allosteric proteins where an allosteric signal at the allosteric domain modifies the activity of the functional domain. Intrinsically disordered regions (linkers) are widely involved in this kind of regulation process, but the essential role they play therein is not well understood. Here, we investigated the effect of linkers in stabilizing the open or the closed states of multidomain proteins using combined thermodynamic deduction and coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. We revealed that the influence of linker can be fully characterized by an effective local concentration [B]₀ . When K_d is smaller than [B]₀ , the closed state would be favored; while the open state would be preferred when K_d is larger than [B]₀ . We used four protein systems with markedly different domain-domain binding affinity and structural order/disorder as model systems to understand the relationship between [B]₀ and the linker length as well as its flexibility. The linker length is the main practical determinant of [B]₀ . [B]₀ of a flexible linker with 40-60 residues was determined to be in a narrow range of 0.2-0.6 mM, while a too short or too long length would dramatically decrease [B]₀ . With the revealed [B]₀ range, the introduction of a flexible linker makes the regulation of weakly interacting partners possible.

Allosteric Methods and Their Applications: Facilitating the Discovery of Allosteric Drugs and the Investigation of Allosteric Mechanisms

Allostery, or allosteric regulation, is the phenomenon in which protein functional activity is altered by the binding of an effector at an allosteric site that is topographically distinct from the orthosteric, active site. As one of the most direct and efficient ways to regulate protein function, allostery has played a fundamental role in innumerable biological processes of all living organisms, including enzyme catalysis, signal transduction, cell metabolism, and gene transcription. It is thus considered as "the second secret of life". The abnormality of allosteric communication networks between allosteric and orthosteric sites is associated with the pathogenesis of human diseases. Allosteric modulators, by attaching to structurally diverse allosteric sites, offer the potential for differential selectivity and improved safety compared with orthosteric drugs that bind to conserved orthosteric sites. Harnessing allostery has thus been regarded as a novel strategy for drug discovery. Despite much progress having been made in the repertoire of allostery since the turn of the millennium, the identification of allosteric drugs for therapeutic targets and the elucidation of allosteric mechanisms still present substantial challenges. These challenges are derived from the difficulties in the identification of allosteric sites and mutations, the assessment of allosteric protein-modulator interactions, the screening of allosteric modulators, and the elucidation of allosteric mechanisms in biological systems. To address these issues, we have developed a panel of allosteric services for specific allosteric applications over the past decade, including (i) the creation of the Allosteric Database, with the aim of providing comprehensive allosteric information such as allosteric proteins, modulators, sites, pathways, etc., (ii) the construction of the ASBench benchmark of high-quality allosteric sites for the development of computational methods for predicting allosteric sites, (iii) the development of Allosite and AllositePro for the prediction of the location of allosteric sites in proteins, (iv) the development of the Alloscore scoring function for the evaluation of allosteric protein-modulator interactions, (v) the development of Allosterome for evolutionary analysis of query allosteric sites/modulators within the human proteome, (vi) the development of AlloDriver for the prediction of allosteric mutagenesis, and (vii) the development of AlloFinder for the virtual screening of allosteric modulators and the investigation of allosteric mechanisms. Importantly, we have validated computationally predicted allosteric sites, mutations, and modulators in the real cases of sirtuin 6, casein kinase 2α, phosphodiesterase 10A, and signal transduction and activation of transcription 3. Furthermore, our developed allosteric methods have been widely exploited by other users around the world for allosteric research. Therefore, these allosteric services are expected to expedite the discovery of allosteric drugs and the investigation of allosteric mechanisms.

Correlation Between Allosteric and Orthosteric Sites

Correlation between an allosteric site and its orthosteric site refers to the phenomenon that perturbations like ligand binding, mutation, or posttranslational modifications at the allosteric site leverage variation in the orthosteric site. Understanding this kind of correlation not only helps to disclose how information is transmitted in allosteric regulation but also provides clues for allosteric drug discovery. This chapter starts with an overview of correlation studies on allosteric and orthosteric sites and then introduces recent progress in evolutionary and simulation-based dynamic studies. Discussions and perspectives on future directions are also given.

D-3-Phosphoglycerate Dehydrogenase

l-Serine is the immediate precursor of d-serine, a major agonist of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. l-Serine is a pivotal amino acid since it serves as a precursor to a large number of essential metabolites besides d-serine. In all non-photosynthetic organisms, including mammals, a major source of l-serine is the phosphorylated pathway of l-serine biosynthesis. The pathway consists of three enzymes, d-3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PGDH), phosphoserine amino transferase (PSAT), and l-phosphoserine phosphatase (PSP). PGDH catalyzes the first step in the pathway by converting d-3-phosphoglycerate (PGA), an intermediate in glycolysis, to phosphohydroxypyruvate (PHP) concomitant with the reduction of NAD⁺. In some, but not all organisms, the catalytic activity of PGDH can be regulated by feedback inhibition by l-serine. Three types of PGDH can be distinguished based on their domain structure. Type III PGDHs contain only a nucleotide binding and substrate binding domain. Type II PGDHs contain an additional regulatory domain (ACT domain), and Type I PGDHs contain a fourth domain, termed the ASB domain. There is no consistent pattern of domain content that correlates with organism type, and even when additional domains are present, they are not always functional. PGDH deficiency results in metabolic defects of the nervous system whose systems range from microcephaly at birth, seizures, and psychomotor retardation. Although deficiency of any of the pathway enzymes have similar outcomes, PGDH deficiency is predominant. Dietary or intravenous supplementation with l-serine is effective in controlling seizures but has little effect on psychomotor development. An increase in PGDH levels, due to overexpression, is also associated with a wide array of cancers. In culture, PGDH is required for tumor cell proliferation, but extracellular l-serine is not able to support cell proliferation. This has led to the hypothesis that the pathway is performing some function related to tumor growth other than supplying l-serine. The most well-studied PGDHs are bacterial, primarily from Escherichia coli and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, perhaps because they have been of most interest mechanistically. However, the relatively recent association of PGDH with neuronal defects and human cancers has provoked renewed interest in human PGDH.

Singular value decomposition for the correlation of atomic fluctuations with arbitrary angle

Many proteins exhibit a critical property called allostery, which enables intra-molecular transmission of information between distal sites. Microscopically, allosteric response is closely related to correlated atomic fluctuations. Conventional correlation analysis correlates the atomic fluctuations at two sites by taking the dot product (DP) between the fluctuations, which accounts only for the parallel and antiparallel components. Here, we present a singular value decomposition (SVD) method that analyzes the correlation coefficient of fluctuation dynamics with an arbitrary angle between the correlated directions. In a model allosteric system, the second PDZ domain (PDZ2) in the human PTP1E protein, approximately one third of the strong correlations have near-perpendicular directions, which are underestimated in the conventional method. The discrimination becomes more prominent for residue pairs with larger separation. The results of the proposed SVD method are more consistent with the experimentally determined PDZ2 dynamics than those of conventional method. In addition, the SVD method improved the prediction accuracy of the allosteric sites in a dataset of 23 known allosteric monomer proteins. The proposed method may inspire extended investigation not only into allostery, but also into protein dynamics and drug design.

Engineered control of enzyme structural dynamics and function

Enzymes undergo a range of internal motions from local, active site fluctuations to large-scale, global conformational changes. These motions are often important for enzyme function, including in ligand binding and dissociation and even preparing the active site for chemical catalysis. Protein engineering efforts have been directed towards manipulating enzyme structural dynamics and conformational changes, including targeting specific amino acid interactions and creation of chimeric enzymes with new regulatory functions. Post-translational covalent modification can provide an additional level of enzyme control. These studies have not only provided insights into the functional role of protein motions, but they offer opportunities to create stimulus-responsive enzymes. These enzymes can be engineered to respond to a number of external stimuli, including light, pH, and the presence of novel allosteric modulators. Altogether, the ability to engineer and control enzyme structural dynamics can provide new tools for biotechnology and medicine.

Rational Design of Selective Allosteric Inhibitors of PHGDH and Serine Synthesis with Anti-tumor Activity

Metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells facilitates growth and proliferation. Increased activity of the serine biosynthetic pathway through the enzyme phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH) contributes to tumorigenesis. With a small substrate and a weak binding cofactor, (NAD⁺), inhibitor development for PHGDH remains challenging. Instead of targeting the PHGDH active site, we computationally identified two potential allosteric sites and virtually screened compounds that can bind to these sites. With subsequent characterization, we successfully identified PHGDH non-NAD⁺-competing allosteric inhibitors that attenuate its enzyme activity, selectively inhibit de novo serine synthesis in cancer cells, and reduce tumor growth in vivo. Our study not only identifies novel allosteric inhibitors for PHGDH to probe its function and potential as a therapeutic target, but also provides a general strategy for the rational design of small-molecule modulators of metabolic enzyme function.

Allosteric sites can be identified based on the residue-residue interaction energy difference

Allosteric drugs act at a distance to regulate protein functions. They have several advantages over conventional orthosteric drugs, including diverse regulation types and fewer side effects. However, the rational design of allosteric ligands remains a challenge, especially when it comes to the identification allosteric binding sites. As the binding of allosteric ligands may induce changes in the pattern of residue-residue interactions, we calculated the residue-residue interaction energies within the allosteric site based on the molecular mechanics generalized Born surface area energy decomposition scheme. Using a dataset of 17 allosteric proteins with structural data for both the apo and the ligand-bound state available, we used conformational ensembles generated by molecular dynamics simulations to compute the differences in the residue-residue interaction energies in known allosteric sites from both states. For all the known sites, distinct interaction energy differences (>25%) were observed. We then used CAVITY, a binding site detection program to identify novel putative allosteric sites in the same proteins. This yielded a total of 31 "druggable binding sites," of which 21 exhibited >25% difference in residue interaction energies, and were hence predicted as novel allosteric sites. Three of the predicted allosteric sites were supported by recent experimental studies. All the predicted sites may serve as novel allosteric sites for allosteric ligand design. Our study provides a computational method for identifying novel allosteric sites for allosteric drug design.

AlloPred: prediction of allosteric pockets on proteins using normal mode perturbation analysis

BACKGROUND

Despite being hugely important in biological processes, allostery is poorly understood and no universal mechanism has been discovered. Allosteric drugs are a largely unexplored prospect with many potential advantages over orthosteric drugs. Computational methods to predict allosteric sites on proteins are needed to aid the discovery of allosteric drugs, as well as to advance our fundamental understanding of allostery.

RESULTS

AlloPred, a novel method to predict allosteric pockets on proteins, was developed. AlloPred uses perturbation of normal modes alongside pocket descriptors in a machine learning approach that ranks the pockets on a protein. AlloPred ranked an allosteric pocket top for 23 out of 40 known allosteric proteins, showing comparable and complementary performance to two existing methods. In 28 of 40 cases an allosteric pocket was ranked first or second. The AlloPred web server, freely available at http://www.sbg.bio.ic.ac.uk/allopred/home, allows visualisation and analysis of predictions. The source code and dataset information are also available from this site.

CONCLUSIONS

Perturbation of normal modes can enhance our ability to predict allosteric sites on proteins. Computational methods such as AlloPred assist drug discovery efforts by suggesting sites on proteins for further experimental study.

Diverse ways of perturbing the human arachidonic acid metabolic network to control inflammation

Inflammation and other common disorders including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer are often the result of several molecular abnormalities and are not likely to be resolved by a traditional single-target drug discovery approach. Though inflammation is a normal bodily reaction, uncontrolled and misdirected inflammation can cause inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and asthma. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs including aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, or celecoxib are commonly used to relieve aches and pains, but often these drugs have undesirable and sometimes even fatal side effects. To facilitate safer and more effective anti-inflammatory drug discovery, a balanced treatment strategy should be developed at the biological network level. In this Account, we focus on our recent progress in modeling the inflammation-related arachidonic acid (AA) metabolic network and subsequent multiple drug design. We first constructed a mathematical model of inflammation based on experimental data and then applied the model to simulate the effects of commonly used anti-inflammatory drugs. Our results indicated that the model correctly reproduced the established bleeding and cardiovascular side effects. Multitarget optimal intervention (MTOI), a Monte Carlo simulated annealing based computational scheme, was then developed to identify key targets and optimal solutions for controlling inflammation. A number of optimal multitarget strategies were discovered that were both effective and safe and had minimal associated side effects. Experimental studies were performed to evaluate these multitarget control solutions further using different combinations of inhibitors to perturb the network. Consequently, simultaneous control of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 and leukotriene A4 hydrolase, as well as 5-lipoxygenase and prostaglandin E2 synthase were found to be among the best solutions. A single compound that can bind multiple targets presents advantages including low risk of drug-drug interactions and robustness regarding concentration fluctuations. Thus, we developed strategies for multiple-target drug design and successfully discovered several series of multiple-target inhibitors. Optimal solutions for a disease network often involve mild but simultaneous interventions of multiple targets, which is in accord with the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). To this end, our AA network model can aptly explain TCM anti-inflammatory herbs and formulas at the molecular level. We also aimed to identify activators for several enzymes that appeared to have increased activity based on MTOI outcomes. Strategies were then developed to predict potential allosteric sites and to discover enzyme activators based on our hypothesis that combined treatment with the projected activators and inhibitors could balance different AA network pathways, control inflammation, and reduce associated adverse effects. Our work demonstrates that the integration of network modeling and drug discovery can provide novel solutions for disease control, which also calls for new developments in drug design concepts and methodologies. With the rapid accumulation of quantitative data and knowledge of the molecular networks of disease, we can expect an increase in the development and use of quantitative disease models to facilitate efficient and safe drug discovery.

Computational Advances for the Development of Allosteric Modulators and Bitopic Ligands in G Protein-Coupled Receptors

Allosteric modulators of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which target at allosteric sites, have significant advantages against the corresponding orthosteric compounds including higher selectivity, improved chemical tractability or physicochemical properties, and reduced risk of receptor oversensitization. Bitopic ligands of GPCRs target both orthosteric and allosteric sites. Bitopic ligands can improve binding affinity, enhance subtype selectivity, stabilize receptors, and reduce side effects. Discovering allosteric modulators or bitopic ligands for GPCRs has become an emerging research area, in which the design of allosteric modulators is a key step in the detection of bitopic ligands. Radioligand binding and functional assays ([(35)S]GTPγS and ERK1/2 phosphorylation) are used to test the effects for potential modulators or bitopic ligands. High-throughput screening (HTS) in combination with disulfide trapping and fragment-based screening are used to aid the discovery of the allosteric modulators or bitopic ligands of GPCRs. When used alone, these methods are costly and can often result in too many potential drug targets, including false positives. Alternatively, low-cost and efficient computational approaches are useful in drug discovery of novel allosteric modulators and bitopic ligands to help refine the number of targets and reduce the false-positive rates. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art computational methods for the discovery of modulators and bitopic ligands. The challenges and opportunities for future drug discovery are also discussed.

Recent computational advances in the identification of allosteric sites in proteins

Allosteric modulators have the potential to fine-tune protein functional activity. Therefore, the targeting of allosteric sites, as a strategy in drug design, is gaining increasing attention. Currently, it is not trivial to find and characterize new allosteric sites by experimental approaches. Alternatively, computational approaches are useful in helping researchers analyze and select potential allosteric sites for drug discovery. Here, we review state-of-the-art computational approaches directed at predicting putative allosteric sites in proteins, along with examples of successes in identifying allosteric sites utilizing these methods. We also discuss the challenges in developing reliable methods for predicting allosteric sites and tactics to resolve demanding tasks.

Harnessing allostery: a novel approach to drug discovery

Allostery is the most direct and efficient way for regulation of biological macromolecule function, ranging from the control of metabolic mechanisms to signal transduction pathways. Allosteric modulators target to allosteric sites, offering distinct advantages compared to orthosteric ligands that target to active sites, such as greater specificity, reduced side effects, and lower toxicity. Allosteric modulators have therefore drawn increasing attention as potential therapeutic drugs in the design and development of new drugs. In recent years, advancements in our understanding of the fundamental principles underlying allostery, coupled with the exploitation of powerful techniques and methods in the field of allostery, provide unprecedented opportunities to discover allosteric proteins, detect and characterize allosteric sites, design and develop novel efficient allosteric drugs, and recapitulate the universal features of allosteric proteins and allosteric modulators. In the present review, we summarize the recent advances in the repertoire of allostery, with a particular focus on the aforementioned allosteric compounds.

Discovery of novel allosteric effectors based on the predicted allosteric sites for Escherichia coli D-3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase

D-3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PGDH) from Escherichia coli catalyzes the first critical step in serine biosynthesis, and can be allosterically inhibited by serine. In a previous study, we developed a computational method for allosteric site prediction using a coarse-grained two-state Gō Model and perturbation. Two potential allosteric sites were predicted for E. coli PGDH, one close to the active site and the nucleotide binding site (Site I) and the other near the regulatory domain (Site II). In the present study, we discovered allosteric inhibitors and activators based on site I, using a high-throughput virtual screen, and followed by using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to eliminate false positives. Compounds 1 and 2 demonstrated a low-concentration activation and high-concentration inhibition phenomenon, with IC₅₀ values of 34.8 and 58.0 µM in enzymatic bioassays, respectively, comparable to that of the endogenous allosteric effector, L-serine. For its activation activity, compound 2 exhibited an AC₅₀ value of 34.7 nM. The novel allosteric site discovered in PGDH was L-serine- and substrate-independent. Enzyme kinetics studies showed that these compounds influenced K_m, k_cat, and k_cat/K_m. We have also performed structure-activity relationship studies to discover high potency allosteric effectors. Compound 2-2, an analog of compound 2, showed the best in vitro activity with an IC₅₀ of 22.3 µM. Compounds targeting this site can be used as new chemical probes to study metabolic regulation in E. coli. Our study not only identified a novel allosteric site and effectors for PGDH, but also provided a general strategy for designing new regulators for metabolic enzymes.