Low temperature XAFS investigation on the lutetium binding changes during the 2-line ferrihydrite alteration process

Ion solvation as a predictor of lanthanide adsorption structures and energetics in alumina nanopores

Adsorption reactions at solid-water interfaces define elemental fate and transport and enable contaminant clean-up, water purification, and chemical separations. For nanoparticles and nanopores, nanoconfinement may lead to unexpected and hard-to-predict products and energetics of adsorption, compared to analogous unconfined surfaces. Here we use X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy and operando flow microcalorimetry to determine nanoconfinement effects on the energetics and local coordination environment of trivalent lanthanides adsorbed on Al2O3 surfaces. We show that the nanoconfinement effects on adsorption become more pronounced as the hydration free energy, ΔGhydr, of a lanthanide decreases. Neodymium (Nd3+) has the least exothermic ΔGhydr (-3336 kJ·mol-1) and forms mostly outer-sphere complexes on unconfined Al2O3 surfaces but shifts to inner-sphere complexes within the 4 nm Al2O3 pores. Lutetium (Lu3+) has the most exothermic ΔGhydr (-3589 kJ·mol-1) and forms inner-sphere adsorption complexes regardless of whether Al2O3 surfaces are nanoconfined. Importantly, the energetics of adsorption is exothermic in nanopores only, and becomes endothermic with increasing surface coverage. Changes to the energetics and products of adsorption in nanopores are ion-specific, even within chemically similar trivalent lanthanide series, and can be predicted by considering the hydration energies of adsorbing ions.

Structure and composition of natural ferrihydrite nano-colloids in anoxic groundwater

Fe-rich mobile colloids play vital yet poorly understood roles in the biogeochemical cycling of Fe in groundwater by influencing organic matter (OM) preservation and fluxes of Fe, OM, and other essential (micro-)nutrients. Yet, few studies have provided molecular detail on the structures and compositions of Fe-rich mobile colloids and factors controlling their persistence in natural groundwater. Here, we provide comprehensive new information on the sizes, molecular structures, and compositions of Fe-rich mobile colloids that accounted for up to 72% of aqueous Fe in anoxic groundwater from a redox-active floodplain. The mobile colloids are multi-phase assemblages consisting of Si-coated ferrihydrite nanoparticles and Fe(II)-OM complexes. Ferrihydrite nanoparticles persisted under both oxic and anoxic conditions, which we attribute to passivation by Si and OM. These findings suggest that mobile Fe-rich colloids generated in floodplains can persist during transport through redox-variable soils and could be discharged to surface waters. These results shed new light on their potential to transport Fe, OM, and nutrients across terrestrial-aquatic interfaces.

Fate of Lu(III) sorbed on 2-line ferrihydrite at pH 5.7 and aged for 12 years at room temperature. II: insights from STEM-EDXS and DFT calculations

Transformation products of two-line ferrihydrite associated with Lu(III) were studied after 12 years of aging using aberration-corrected high-angle annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM), high-efficiency energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS), and density functional theory (DFT). The transformation products consisted of hematite nanoparticles with overgrown goethite needles. High-efficiency STEM-EDXS revealed that Lu is only associated with goethite needles, and atomic-resolution HAADF-STEM reveals structural incorporation of Lu within goethite, partially replacing structural Fe sites. This finding corroborates those recently obtained by AsFlFFF and EXAFS spectroscopy on the same sample (Finck et al. 2018). DFT calculations indicate that Lu incorporation within goethite or hematite are almost equally likely, suggesting that experimental parameters such as temperature and reaction time which affect reaction kinetics, play important roles in determining the Lu uptake. It seems likely that these results may be transferable to predict the behavior of chemically homologous trivalent actinides.

Fate of Lu(III) sorbed on 2-line ferrihydrite at pH 5.7 and aged for 12 years at room temperature. I: insights from ICP-OES, XRD, ESEM, AsFlFFF/ICP-MS, and EXAFS spectroscopy

Two-line ferrihydrite (2LFh) was aged for 12 years under ambient conditions and sheltered from light in the presence of Lu(III) used as surrogate for trivalent actinides. 2LFh aging produced hematite rhombohedra with overgrown acicular goethite particles. Analysis of the homogeneous suspension by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AsFlFFF) coupled to ICP-MS indicated that particles have a mean hydrodynamic diameter of about 140 nm and the strong correlation of the Fe and Lu fractograms hinted at a structural association of the lanthanide with the solid phase(s). Unfortunately, recoveries were low and thus results cannot be considered representative of the whole sample. The suspension was centrifuged and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) at the Lu L₃-edge on the settled particles indicated that Lu(III) is sixfold coordinated by oxygen atoms, pointing to a retention by structural incorporation within particles. This result is consistent with AsFlFFF results on the same suspension without centrifugation. The detection of next nearest Fe and O atoms were consistent with the structure of goethite, ruling out incorporation within hematite. After centrifugation of the suspension, only nanoparticulate needle-like particles, very likely goethite, could be detected in the supernatant by ESEM. AsFlFFF data of the supernatant were comparable to that obtained for the homogeneous suspension, whereas XAS indicated that Lu(III) is predominantly present as dissolved species in the supernatant. Results from both techniques can be interpreted as a major fraction of Lu present as aqueous ions and a minor fraction as structurally incorporated. Findings from this study are corroborated by STEM-HAADF data and results from DFT calculations in a companion paper.

Aqueous Fe(II)-Induced Phase Transformation of Ferrihydrite Coupled Adsorption/Immobilization of Rare Earth Elements

The phase transformation of iron minerals induced by aqueous Fe(II) (Fe(II)aq) is a critical geochemical reaction which greatly affects the geochemical behavior of soil elements. How the geochemical behavior of rare earth elements (REEs) is affected by the Fe(II)aq-induced phase transformation of iron minerals, however, is still unknown. The present study investigated the adsorption and immobilization of REEs during the Fe(II)aq-induced phase transformation of ferrihydrite. The results show that the heavy REEs of Ho(III) were more efficiently adsorbed and stabilized compared with the light REEs of La(III) by ferrihydrite and its transformation products, which was due to the higher adsorptive affinity and smaller atomic radius of Ho(III). Both La(III) and Ho(III) inhibited the Fe atom exchange between Fe(II)aq and ferrihydrite, and sequentially, the Fe(II)aq-induced phase transformation rates of ferrihydrite, because of the competitive adsorption with Fe(II)aq on the surface of iron (hydr)oxides. Owing to the larger amounts of adsorbed and stabilized Ho(III), the inhibition of the Fe(II)aq-induced phase transformation of ferrihydrite affected by Ho(III) was higher than that by La(III). Our findings suggest an important role for the Fe(II)aq-induced phase transformation of iron (hydr)oxides in assessing the mobility and transfer behavior of REEs, as well as for their occurrence in earth surface environments.

Hematite (α-Fe2O3) - A potential Ce4+ carrier in red mud

Cerium is the most abundant rare earth element (REE) within the waste product of alumina production (red mud), but its speciation in this complex material is still barely understood. Previous studies showed evidence for a correlation between Ce and the main constituent of red mud, iron oxides, which led us to investigate the most abundant iron oxide in red mud, hematite, as possible carrier phase for Ce. Synthetic hematite can incorporate up to 1.70±0.01wt% Ce, which leads to a systematical increase of all unit cell parameters. Investigations by extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy suggest an incorporation of Ce⁴⁺O₆ into the hematite structure by a novel atomic arrangement, fundamentally different from the close-range order around Fe³⁺ in hematite. Samples of red mud were taken in Lauta (Saxony), Germany and analyzed by powder X-ray diffraction, inductively coupled plasma mass and optical emission spectrometry, electron microprobe analysis and X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy. Red mud samples consist of hematite (Fe₂O₃) (34-58wt%), sodalite (Na₈Al₆Si₆O₂₄Cl₂) (4-30wt%), gibbsite (Al(OH)₃) (0-25wt%), goethite (FeOOH) (10-23wt%), böhmite (AlOOH) (0-11wt%), rutile (TiO₂) (4-8wt%), cancrinite (Na₆Ca₂Al₆Si₆O₂₄(CO₃)₂) (0-5wt%), nordstrandite (Al(OH)₃) (0-5wt%) and quartz (SiO₂) (0-4wt%). While the main elemental composition is Fe>Al>Na>Ti>Ca (Si not included), the average concentration of REE is 1109±6mg/kg with an average Ce concentration of 464±3mg/kg. The main carrier of Ce was located in the Fe-rich fine-grained fraction of red mud (0.10wt% Ce₂O₃), while other potential Ce carriers like monazite, lead oxides, secondary Ce-minerals and particles of potentially anthropogenic origin are of subordinated relevance. Cerium in red mud occurs predominantly as Ce⁴⁺, which further excludes Ce³⁺ minerals as relevant sources.

Radionuclide behaviour in the near-field of a geological repository for spent nuclear fuel

Even though chemical processes related to the corrosion of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geological repository are of complex nature, knowledge on underlying mechanisms has very much improved over the last years. As a major result of numerous studies it turns out that alteration of irradiated fuel is significantly inhibited under the strongly reducing conditions induced by container corrosion and consecutive H2 production. In contrast to earlier results, radiolysis driven fuel corrosion and oxidative dissolution appears to be less relevant for most repository concepts. The protective hydrogen effect on corrosion of irradiated fuel has been evidenced in many experiments. Still, open questions remain related to the exact mechanism and the impact of potentially interfering naturally occurring groundwater trace components. Container corrosion products are known to offer considerable reactive surface area in addition to engineered buffer and backfill material. In combination, waste form, container corrosion products and backfill material represent strong barriers for radionuclide retention and retardation and thus attenuate radionuclide release from the repository near-field.

Uptake and release of cerium during Fe-oxide formation and transformation in Fe(II) solutions

Fe-oxides are ubiquitous in soils and sediments and form during Fe(0) corrosion. Depending on redox conditions and solution composition, Fe-oxides such as ferrihydrite, goethite, magnetite, and green rust (GR) may form. These phases typically have high surface area and large affinity for adsorption of trace components. Further, Fe(II)-Fe(III) (hydr)oxides are redox active. Cerium, a member of the lanthanide family, can be used as an analogue for the tri- and tetra-valent actinides found in radioactive waste, expected to be stored in subsurface repositories. In experiments with ferrihydrite, Ce(III) was effectively scavenged from Fe(II)-bearing solutions within 5 min at pH 7. During transformation of ferrihydrite to green rust, however, all Ce(III) was released to solution. By varying initial solution Fe(II):Fe(III) ratio, magnetite and goethite formed together with GR(Na,SO(4)), resulting in decreased Ce(III) release. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed Ce(III) adsorbed on magnetite. When Fe-oxides were synthesized by air oxidation of Fe(II) solutions at pH 7, GR(Na,SO(4)) played a catalytic role in the oxidation of Ce(III) to Ce(IV) by O(2), removing more than 90% of the dissolved Ce. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that it formed discrete nanocrystals of CeO(2(s)). These results demonstrate that Fe-oxide interaction with radionuclides is likely to depend strongly on the local redox conditions. By analogy with Ce, the trivalent actinides are not expected to be sequestered by preformed GR in anoxic environments. Our results also suggest that trivalent actinides and lanthanides are released when dissimilatory iron reduction of Fe(III)-oxides leads to GR formation However, under oxidizing conditions, GR may influence radionuclide mobility by catalyzing their transformation to a higher oxidation state.

The INE-Beamline for actinide research at ANKA

The Institut für Nukleare Entsorgung (INE) at the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (FZK), Germany, has constructed and is operating a beamline at the synchrotron source ANKA dedicated to actinide speciation investigations related to nuclear waste disposal as well as applied and basic actinide research. Experiments on nuclides not suited as nuclear fuel with activities up to 106 times the limit of exemption inside a safe and flexible containment concept are now possible. The design is for a multi-purpose beamline, i.e., a number of methods (XAFS, surface sensitive and spatially resolved techniques) are envisaged on one and the same sample, with X-ray energies from 2472 eV (SK edge) to 23220 eV (RhK edge). The commissioning of the INE-Beamline was officially completed in September 2005 and meanwhile regular user operation has been started. Here we present a description of this new facility and examples for X-ray absorption studies on actinides and homologues performed during the beamline commissioning phase.

Sorption of Am(III) onto 6-line-ferrihydrite and its alteration products: investigations by EXAFS

For the long-term performance assessment of nuclear waste repositories, knowledge about the interactions of actinide ions with mineral surfaces such as iron oxides is imperative. The mobility of released radionuclides is strongly dependent on the sorption/desorption processes at these surfaces and on their incorporation into the mineral structure. In this study the interaction of Am(III) with 6-line-ferrihydrite (6LFh) was investigated by EXAFS spectroscopy. At low pH values (pH 5.5), as well at higher pH values (pH 8.0), Am(III) sorbs as a bidentate corner-sharing species onto the surface. Investigations of the interaction of Am(III) with Fh coated silica colloids prove the sorption onto the iron coating and not onto the silica substrate. Hence, the presence of Fh, even as sediment coating, is the dominant sorption surface. Upon heating, Fh is transformed into goethite and hematite as shown by TEM and IR measurements. The results of the fit to the EXAFS data indicate the release of sorbed Am(III) at pH 5.5 during the transformation and likely a partial incorporation of Am into the Fh transformation products at pH 8.0.

Adsorption of hydrogen sulfide on montmorillonites modified with iron

Sodium-rich montmorillonite was modified with iron in order to introduce active centers for hydrogen sulfide adsorption. In the first modification, interlayer sodium cations were exchanged with iron. In another modification, iron oxocations were introduced to the clay surface. The most elaborated modification was based on doping of iron within the interlayer space of aluminum-pillared clay. The modified clay samples were tested as hydrogen sulfide adsorbents. Iron-doped samples showed a significant improvement in the capacity for H2S removal, despite of a noticeable decrease in microporosity compared to the initial pillared clay. The smallest capacity was obtained for the clay modified with iron oxocations. Variations in adsorption capacity are likely due to differences in the chemistry of iron species, degree of their dispersion on the surface, and accessibility of small pores for H2S molecule. The results suggest that on the surface of iron-modified clay hydrogen sulfide reacts with Fe(+3) forming sulfides or it is catalytically oxidized to SO2 on iron (hydro)oxides. Subsequent oxidation may lead to sulfate formation.

Cluster analysis of soft X-ray spectromicroscopy data

Soft X-ray spectromicroscopy provides spectral data on the chemical speciation of light elements at sub-100 nm spatial resolution. When all chemical species in a specimen are known and separately characterized, existing approaches can be used to measure the concentration of each component at each pixel. In other cases (such as often occur in biology or environmental science), some spectral signatures may not be known in advance so other approaches must be used. We describe here an approach that uses principal component analysis to orthogonalize and noise-filter spectromicroscopy data. We then use cluster analysis (a form of unsupervised pattern matching) to classify pixels according to spectral similarity, to extract representative, cluster-averaged spectra with good signal-to-noise ratio, and to obtain gradations of concentration of these representative spectra at each pixel. The method is illustrated with a simulated data set of organic compounds, and a mixture of lutetium in hematite used to understand colloidal transport properties of radionuclides.

Laser-induced breakdown detection combined with asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation: application to iron oxi/hydroxide colloid characterization

The combination of asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AsFlFFF) with the laser-induced breakdown detection (LIBD) is presented as a powerful tool for the determination of colloid size distribution at trace particle concentrations. Detection limits (D1) of 1, 4, and 20 microg/L have been determined for a mixture of polystyrene reference particles with 20, 50, and 100 nm in size, respectively. This corresponds to injected masses of 1, 4, and 20 pg, which is lower than found in a previous study with the symmetrical FlFFF (SyFlFFF). The improvement is mainly due to the lower colloid background discharged from the AsFlFFF channel. The combined method of AsFlFFF-LIBD is then applied to the analysis of iron oxi/hydroxide colloids being considered as potential carriers for the radionuclide migration from a nuclear waste repository. Our LIBD arrangement is less sensitive for iron colloid detection as compared to reference polystyrene particles which results in a detection limit of approximately 240 microg/L FeOOH for the AsFlFFF-LIBD analysis. This is superior to the detection via UV-Vis absorbance and comparable to ICP-MS detection. Size information (mean size 11-18 nm) for different iron oxi/hydroxide colloids supplied by the present method is comparable to that obtained by sequential ultrafiltration and dynamic light scattering. A combined on-line ICP-MS detection is used to gain insight into the colloid-borne main and trace elements.

Colloid-borne americium migration in Gorleben groundwater: significance of iron secondary phase transformation

The mobility of actinides in natural water may be enhanced by colloid-mediated transport. In this context the reversibility of actinide colloid interaction is a key factor. Iron is an element that can generate colloids under conditions found in natural waters. In this paper, the impact of hematite and the low-crystalline precursor 2-line ferrihydrite on colloid-mediated transport of americium(III) is investigated. Am(III)-containing iron colloids are generated from two different approaches, namely contact between the two in aqueous solution or coprecipitation of Am(III) during iron colloid generation. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), especially humic substances, has a strong influence on the stability of inorganic colloids. In addition, humic substances interfere in the distribution and kinetics of exchange between groundwater and sediments. Four groundwaters from the Gorleben aquifer system are used with DOC concentrations varying between 0.9 and 81.6 mgC/L together with Pleistocene Aeolian quartz sand from this site. Batch and column experiments are conducted under near-natural conditions (Ar + 1% CO2). To study the influence of kinetics, contact times up to one month are studied. The dynamic light-scattering investigations show that the colloidal stability of the 2-line ferrihydrite increases with increasing DOC concentration. The low-crystalline iron colloids have a marginal influence on the Am(III) transport due to reversibility of americium sorption. Contrary to this, the crystalline hematite generated from coprecipitation of Am(III) leads to an increase of unretarded colloid-mediated Am(III) transport up to a factor of almost five. Chemical characterization of these hematite colloids shows that Am(III) is structurally entrapped in the hematite. The distribution of Am(III) and 2-line ferrihydrite between groundwater and sand sediment remained in disequilibrium even after one month. This shows that the kinetics of Am(III) distribution between the different phases (bulk solution/colloidal form/ sediment) is a key issue.