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Gong J, Zhu Y, Chen D, Gao H, Shen Y, Gao Y, Yao X. The occurrence of lower-than-expected bulk N CCN values over the marginal seas of China - Implications for competitive activation of marine aerosols. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 858:159938. [PMID: 36336057 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we combined the measured bulk particle number concentration (NCN), particle number size distribution (PNSD) and bulk cloud condensation nuclei concentration (NCCN) at various supersaturation (SS) levels to investigate competitive activation of aerosols in the marine atmospheres over the marginal seas of China during two winter campaigns Campaign A (December 9-19, 2019) and Campaign B (December 28, 2019-January 16, 2020). During the two campaigns, we observed various categories of aerosols, i.e., long-range transport continental aerosols, clean marine aerosols, grown new particles ranging from nucleation mode to larger sizes, and grown pre-existing particles ranging from Aitken mode to accumulation mode size, etc. We found that the measured NCCN increased by only approximately 30 % with increases in SS levels from 0.2 % to 1.0 %, e.g., (1.8 ± 1.4) × 103 cm-3 at SS = 0.2 % and (2.4 ± 1.4) × 103 cm-3 at SS = 1.0 % during Campaign A. We further calculated the hygroscopicity parameter kappa (κ) by combining simultaneously measured PNSD and bulk NCCN to explore the causes. The calculated κ values were below 0.1 at SS = 0.4 % during the 72 % (or 88 %) period of Campaign A (or Campaign B). When κ values below 0.1 (or 0.2) were excluded, the remaining κ values were apparently reasonable, with an average of 0.22 (or 0.36) and a standard deviation of 0.10 (or 0.21) at SS = 0.4 % during Campaign A (or Campaign B). The unexpectedly lower κ values were discussed in terms of competitive activation of aerosols in marine atmospheres together with its net contribution to lowering the measured bulk NCCN below the expected value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junlin Gong
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology (MoE) and Frontiers Sci Ctr Deep Ocean Multispheres & Earth, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Yujiao Zhu
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China.
| | - Duihui Chen
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology (MoE) and Frontiers Sci Ctr Deep Ocean Multispheres & Earth, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Huiwang Gao
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology (MoE) and Frontiers Sci Ctr Deep Ocean Multispheres & Earth, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yanjie Shen
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology (MoE) and Frontiers Sci Ctr Deep Ocean Multispheres & Earth, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Yang Gao
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology (MoE) and Frontiers Sci Ctr Deep Ocean Multispheres & Earth, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Xiaohong Yao
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology (MoE) and Frontiers Sci Ctr Deep Ocean Multispheres & Earth, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China.
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Zhang H, Chu B, Liu J, Liu Y, Chen T, Cao Q, Wang Y, Zhang P, Ma Q, Wang Q, He H. Titanium Dioxide Promotes New Particle Formation: A Smog Chamber Study. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:920-928. [PMID: 36592345 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c06946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
TiO2 is a widely used material in building coatings. Many studies have revealed that TiO2 promotes the heterogeneous oxidation of SO2 and the subsequent sulfate formation. However, whether and how much TiO2 contributes to the gaseous H2SO4 and subsequent new particle formation (NPF) still remains unclear. Herein, we used a 1 m3 quartz smog chamber to investigate NPF in the presence of TiO2. The experimental results indicated that TiO2 could greatly promote NPF. The increases in particle formation rate (J) and growth rate due to the presence of TiO2 were quantified, and the promotion effect was attributed to the production of gaseous H2SO4. The promotion effect of TiO2 on SO2 oxidation and subsequent NPF decreased gradually due to the formation of surface sulfate but did not disappear completely, instead partly recovering after washing with water. Moreover, the promotion effect of TiO2 on NPF was observed regardless of differences in RH, and the most significant promotion effect of TiO2 associated with the strongest NPF occurred at an RH of 20%. Based on the experimental evidence, the environmental impact of TiO2 on gaseous H2SO4 and particle pollution in urban areas was estimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhang
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing100083, China
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
| | - Biwu Chu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Jun Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Tianzeng Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
| | - Qing Cao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Yonghong Wang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
| | - Qingxin Ma
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing100083, China
- Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control & Eco-Remediation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing100083, China
| | - Hong He
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100085, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
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Liu M, Myllys N, Han Y, Wang Z, Chen L, Liu W, Xu J. Microscopic Insights Into the Formation of Methanesulfonic Acid–Methylamine–Ammonia Particles Under Acid-Rich Conditions. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.875585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the microscopic mechanisms of new particle formation under acid-rich conditions is of significance in atmospheric science. Using quantum chemistry calculations, we investigated the microscopic formation mechanism of methanesulfonic acid (MSA)–methylamine (MA)–ammonia (NH3) clusters. We focused on the binary (MSA)2n-(MA)n and ternary (MSA)3n-(MA)n-(NH3)n, (n = 1–4) systems which contain more acid than base molecules. We found that the lowest-energy isomers in each system possess considerable thermodynamic and dynamic stabilities. In studied cluster structures, all bases are protonated, and they form stable ion pairs with MSA, which contribute to the charge transfer and the stability of clusters. MA and NH3 have a synergistic effect on NPF under acid-rich conditions, and the role of NH3 becomes more remarkable as cluster size increases. The excess of MSA molecules does not only enhance the stability of clusters, but provides potential sites for further growth.
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Kontkanen J, Stolzenburg D, Olenius T, Yan C, Dada L, Ahonen L, Simon M, Lehtipalo K, Riipinen I. What controls the observed size-dependency of the growth rates of sub-10 nm atmospheric particles? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERES 2022; 2:449-468. [PMID: 35694135 PMCID: PMC9119032 DOI: 10.1039/d1ea00103e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The formation and growth of atmospheric particles involving sulfuric acid and organic vapors is estimated to have significant climate effects. To accurately represent this process in large-scale models, the correct interpretation of the observations on particle growth, especially below 10 nm, is essential. Here, we disentangle the factors governing the growth of sub-10 nm particles in the presence of sulfuric acid and organic vapors, using molecular-resolution cluster population simulations and chamber experiments. We find that observed particle growth rates are determined by the combined effects of (1) the concentrations and evaporation rates of the condensing vapors, (2) particle population dynamics, and (3) stochastic fluctuations, characteristic to initial nucleation. This leads to a different size-dependency of growth rate in the presence of sulfuric acid and/or organic vapors at different concentrations. Specifically, the activation type behavior, resulting in growth rate increasing with the particle size, is observed only at certain vapor concentrations. In our model simulations, cluster–cluster collisions enhance growth rate at high vapor concentrations and their importance is dictated by the cluster evaporation rates, which demonstrates the need for accurate evaporation rate data. Finally, we show that at sizes below ∼2.5–3.5 nm, stochastic effects can importantly contribute to particle population growth. Overall, our results suggest that interpreting particle growth observations with approaches neglecting population dynamics and stochastics, such as with single particle growth models, can lead to the wrong conclusions on the properties of condensing vapors and particle growth mechanisms. A combination of cluster population simulations and chamber experiments was used to disentangle the factors governing the observed growth rates of atmospheric particles.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenni Kontkanen
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Dominik Stolzenburg
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tinja Olenius
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Chao Yan
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lubna Dada
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Lauri Ahonen
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mario Simon
- Institute for Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Katrianne Lehtipalo
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ilona Riipinen
- Department of Environmental Science (ACES), Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Yang Z, Zheng C, Li Q, Zheng H, Zhao H, Gao X. Fast Evolution of Sulfuric Acid Aerosol Activated by External Fields for Enhanced Emission Control. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:3022-3031. [PMID: 32045525 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Sulfuric acid aerosol (SAA) can considerably deteriorate air visibility, which poses a threat to human health. Pretreatment methods that enlarge SAA sizes are crucial to enhanced emission control from industrials. This study provides an insight into SAA growth in terms of aerosol dynamics simulation and growth experiments under simulated flue gas conditions. Results show that SAA growth dynamics are dominated by coagulation and condensation mechanisms for small and large aerosols, respectively. The two mechanisms are coupled mainly in SAA sizes smaller than 0.05 μm. A large amount of time was allotted for the SAA distribution to grow into an approximately log-normal form without the use of any activation methods. Cooling gas and corona discharge can both enhance SAA growth. Cooling gas is in charge of condensation, whereas corona discharge mainly acts on coagulation. They exhibited 14.3% and 12.3% increases in mean diameter and 12.3% and 69.1% decreases in number concentration. In contrast, adding vapor led to a 1.58% decrease in mean diameter and a 9.4% increase in number concentration. Findings suggest that combining cooling gas and corona discharge to simultaneously promote coagulation and condensation and reduce SAA emission from humid flue gas is possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengda Yang
- State Key Lab of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China
- College of New Energy, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, P. R. China
| | - Chenghang Zheng
- State Key Lab of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China
| | - Qingyi Li
- Zhejiang Energy Group Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310007, P. R. China
| | - Hao Zheng
- State Key Lab of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China
| | - Haitao Zhao
- State Key Lab of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China
| | - Xiang Gao
- State Key Lab of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China
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Kim H, Zhang Q. Chemistry of new particle growth during springtime in the Seoul metropolitan area, Korea. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 225:713-722. [PMID: 30903845 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.03.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
New particle formation and growth events (NPEs) were frequently observed (17 out of 60 days) during April 14 to June 15, 2016 in the Seoul metropolitan area (SMA). In this study, we investigated the chemical mechanisms of new particle growth based on measurements conducted using an aerodyne high resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) and a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS). Both instruments were deployed as a part of the KORUS-AQ campaign (Korea-US Air Quality study). NPEs usually started around noon time between ∼11:00 and 14:00 with the appearance of an ultrafine mode peaking between ∼20 and 30 nm (in mobility diameter, Dm, measured by the SMPS operating in the range 18-947 nm) followed by the growth of this modal diameter to 50-100 nm during the next ∼6-18 h. The growth rate of NPEs during the study was on average 4.48 ± 1.39 nm/h. Comparing to the non-NPE days in SMA, NPEs occurred under the conditions of lower concentration of preexisting particles, higher ozone (48 vs 30 ppb), stronger solar radiation (2.53 vs1.20 MJ/m2), and drier air (34 vs 65%). The HR-ToF-AMS size-resolved aerosol composition measurements show that LV-OOA (low volatility oxidized organic aerosol) and sulfate were major contributors to the growth of new particles at the initial stage of NPE which mostly occurred during daytime and that the later growth which extended into nighttime was mainly contributed by semi-volatile condensable species such as nitrate and SV-OOA (semi-volatile oxygenated organic aerosol). Generally new particles grew to a modal size of ∼80 nm (12 out of 17 NPEs) over the course of an event, however, particles could grow to larger than 100 nm when nitrate concentration was high whereas particle growth was limited to ∼ 50 nm when nitrate, SV-OOA or sulfate were low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hwajin Kim
- Center for Environment, Health and Welfare Research, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea; Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea.
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Chee S, Myllys N, Barsanti KC, Wong BM, Smith JN. An Experimental and Modeling Study of Nanoparticle Formation and Growth from Dimethylamine and Nitric Acid. J Phys Chem A 2019; 123:5640-5648. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.9b03326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Chee
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92617, United States
| | - Nanna Myllys
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92617, United States
| | | | | | - James N. Smith
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92617, United States
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Zhang H, Li H, Liu L, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Li Z. The potential role of malonic acid in the atmospheric sulfuric acid - Ammonia clusters formation. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 203:26-33. [PMID: 29604427 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Malonic acid (MOA), one of the major dicarboxylic acids (DCAs) in aerosols, has been identified experimentally and computationally to be a strong acid. However, its potential role in the atmospheric clusters formation is still ambiguous. Hence, the participant mechanism of MOA on the formation of atmospheric sulfuric acid (SA)- ammonia (A) clusters was investigated by combining computational methods with atmospheric cluster dynamics code (ACDC). The most stable molecular structures obtained at the M06-2X/6-311++G(3df,3pd) level of theory shows that the added MOA molecule in the SA-A-based clusters presents a promotion on the interactions between SA and A molecules. ACDC simulations indicate directly an obvious enhancement strength RMOA on the clusters formation rates at 218 K and the concentration of MOA ([MOA]) larger than 108 molecules cm-3, up to five orders of magnitude. Meanwhile, enhancement strength of MOA is compared with that of glycolic acid, and as expected, MOA presents a superior enhancement strength. Both RMOA and the compared enhancement strength (rcom) present a positive dependency on [MOA] and a negative dependency on [SA]. With the increase of [A], both RMOA and rcom (except at [SA] = 104 molecules cm-3) first increase, reaching the maximum value and then decrease. Finally, a catalytic participant mechanism of MOA where MOA acts as a mediate bridge for the formation of pure SA-A-based clusters has been identified by tracing the main growth pathways of the system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijie Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education of China, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Li
- Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education of China, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Liu
- Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education of China, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunhong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education of China, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiuhui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education of China, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zesheng Li
- Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education of China, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China.
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Wang CY, Jiang S, Liu YR, Wen H, Wang ZQ, Han YJ, Huang T, Huang W. Synergistic Effect of Ammonia and Methylamine on Nucleation in the Earth’s Atmosphere. A Theoretical Study. J Phys Chem A 2018; 122:3470-3479. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.8b00681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yu Wang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
- School of Information Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Shuai Jiang
- School of Information Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Yi-Rong Liu
- School of Information Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Hui Wen
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Zhong-Quan Wang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
- School of Information Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Ya-Juan Han
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Teng Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
- School of Information Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
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Miao SK, Jiang S, Peng XQ, Liu YR, Feng YJ, Wang YB, Zhao F, Huang T, Huang W. Hydration of the methanesulfonate–ammonia/amine complex and its atmospheric implications. RSC Adv 2018; 8:3250-3263. [PMID: 35541186 PMCID: PMC9077587 DOI: 10.1039/c7ra12064h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Methanesulfonate (MSA−), found in substantial concentrations in the atmosphere, is expected to enhance aerosol nucleation and the growth of nanoparticles, but the details of methanesulfonate clusters are poorly understood. In this study, MSA− was chosen along with ammonia (NH3) or three common amines and water (H2O) to discuss the roles of ternary homogeneous nucleation and ion-induced nucleation in aerosol formation. We studied the structural characteristics and thermodynamics of the clusters using density functional theory at the PW91PW91/6-311++G(3df,3pd) level. The analysis of noncovalent interactions predicts that the amines can form more stable clusters with MSA− than NH3, in agreement with the results from structures and thermodynamics; however, the enhancement in stability for amines is not large enough to overcome the difference in the concentrations of NH3 and amines under typical atmospheric conditions. In addition, the favorable free energies of formation for the (MSA−)(NH3/amines)(H2O)n (n = 0–3) clusters at 298.15 K show that MSA− could contribute to the aerosol nucleation process with binding NH3/amines and H2O up to n = 3. There are strong temperature and humidity dependences for the formation of complexes; higher humidity and temperature promote the formation of larger hydrates. Finally, for the (MSA−)(NH3/amines)(H2O)n clusters, the evaporation rates were determined to further investigate the atmospheric implications. Methanesulfonate (MSA−), found in substantial concentrations in the atmosphere, is expected to enhance aerosol nucleation and the growth of nanoparticles, but the details of methanesulfonate clusters are poorly understood.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Shou-Kui Miao
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry
- Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei
- China
| | - Shuai Jiang
- School of Information Science and Technology
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
- China
| | - Xiu-Qiu Peng
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry
- Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei
- China
| | - Yi-Rong Liu
- School of Information Science and Technology
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
- China
| | - Ya-Juan Feng
- School of Information Science and Technology
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
- China
| | - Yan-Bing Wang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry
- Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei
- China
| | - Feng Zhao
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry
- Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei
- China
| | - Teng Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry
- Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei
- China
| | - Wei Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry
- Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei
- China
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Bzdek BR, DePalma JW, Johnston MV. Mechanisms of Atmospherically Relevant Cluster Growth. Acc Chem Res 2017; 50:1965-1975. [PMID: 28700203 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Atmospheric aerosols impact global climate either directly by scattering solar radiation or indirectly by serving as cloud condensation nuclei, which influence cloud albedo and precipitation patterns. Our scientific understanding of these impacts is poor relative to that of, for instance, greenhouse gases, in part because it is difficult to predict particle number concentrations. One important pathway by which particles are added to the atmosphere is new particle formation, where gas phase precursors form molecular clusters that subsequently grow to the climatically relevant size range (50-100 nm diameter). It is predicted that up to 50% of atmospheric particles arise from this process, but the key initial chemical processes are poorly resolved. In general, a combination of inorganic and organic molecules are thought to contribute to new particle formation, but the chemical composition of molecular clusters and pathways by which they grow to larger sizes is unclear. Cluster growth is a key component of new particle formation, as it governs whether molecular clusters will become climatically relevant. This Account discusses our recent work to understand the mechanisms underlying new particle growth. Atmospherically relevant molecular clusters containing the likely key contributors to new particle formation (sulfuric acid, ammonia, amines, and water) were investigated experimentally by Fourier transform mass spectrometry as well as computationally by density functional theory. Our laboratory experiments investigated the molecular composition of charged clusters, the molecular pathways by which these clusters may grow, and the kinetics of base incorporation into them. Computational chemistry allowed confirmation and rationalization of the experimental results for charged clusters and extension of these principles to uncharged and hydrated clusters that are difficult to study by mass spectrometry. This combination of approaches enabled us to establish a framework for cluster growth involving sulfuric acid, ammonia, amines, and water. Charged or uncharged, cluster growth occurs primarily through an ammonium (or aminium) bisulfate coordinate. In these clusters, proton transfer is maximized between acids and bases to produce cations (ammonium, aminium) and anions (bisulfate), whereas additional molecules (water and unneutralized sulfuric acid) remain un-ionized. Experimental measurements suggest the growth of positively charged clusters occurs by successive acidification and neutralization steps. The acidification step is nearly barrierless, whereas the neutralization step exhibits a significant activation barrier in the case of ammonia. Bases are also incorporated into these clusters by displacement of one base for another. Base displacement is barrierless on the cluster surface but not within the cluster core. The favorability of amines relative to ammonia in charged clusters is governed by the trade-off between gas phase basicity and binding energetics. Computational studies indicate that water has a relatively small effect on cluster energetics. In short, amines are effective at assisting the formation and initial growth of clusters but become less important as cluster size increases, especially when hydration is considered. More generally, this work shows how experiment and computation can provide important, complementary information to address problems of environmental interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan R. Bzdek
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Joseph W. DePalma
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Murray V. Johnston
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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Stangl CM, Johnston MV. Aqueous Reaction of Dicarbonyls with Ammonia as a Potential Source of Organic Nitrogen in Airborne Nanoparticles. J Phys Chem A 2017; 121:3720-3727. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.7b02464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M. Stangl
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Murray V. Johnston
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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13
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Wang CY, Ma Y, Chen J, Jiang S, Liu YR, Wen H, Feng YJ, Hong Y, Huang T, Huang W. Bidirectional Interaction of Alanine with Sulfuric Acid in the Presence of Water and the Atmospheric Implication. J Phys Chem A 2016; 120:2357-71. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.5b11678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yu Wang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Yan Ma
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Jiao Chen
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Shuai Jiang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Yi-Rong Liu
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Hui Wen
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Ya-Juan Feng
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Yu Hong
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Teng Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
- School of Environmental Science & Optoelectronic Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
- Center
for Excellence in Urban Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban
Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1799 Jimei Road, Xiamen 361021, China
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Man H, Zhu Y, Ji F, Yao X, Lau NT, Li Y, Lee BP, Chan CK. Comparison of daytime and nighttime new particle growth at the HKUST supersite in Hong Kong. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:7170-7178. [PMID: 25988913 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b02143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Particles larger than 50-100 nm in diameter have been considered to be effective cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) under typical atmospheric conditions. We studied the growth of newly formed particles (NPs) in the atmosphere and the conditions for these particles to grow beyond 50 nm at a suburban coastal site in Hong Kong. Altogether, 17 new particle formation events each lasting over 1 h were observed in 17 days during 8 Mar-28 Apr and 1 Nov-30 Dec 2011. In 12 events, single-stage growth of NPs was observed in daytime when the median mobility diameter of NPs (Dp) increased up to ∼40 nm but did not increase further. In three events, two-stage particle growth to 61-97 nm was observed at nighttime. The second stage growth was preceded by a first-stage growth in daytime when the Dp reached 43 ± 4 nm. In all these 15 events, organics and sulfuric acid were major contributors to the first-stage growth in daytime. Ammonium nitrate unlikely contributed to the growth in daytime, but it was correlated with the second-stage growth of ∼40 nm NPs to CCN sizes at nighttime. The remaining two events apparently showed second-stage growth in late afternoon but were confirmed to be due to mixing of NPs with pre-existing particles. We conclude that daytime NP growth cannot reach CCN sizes at our site, but nighttime NP growth driven by organics and NH4NO3 can.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyang Man
- †Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
- ∥School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yujiao Zhu
- †Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Fei Ji
- †Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Xiaohong Yao
- †Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
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Meng H, Zhu Y, Evans GJ, Jeong CH, Yao X. Roles of SO2 oxidation in new particle formation events. J Environ Sci (China) 2015; 30:90-101. [PMID: 25872713 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The oxidation of SO2 is commonly regarded as a major driver for new particle formation (NPF) in the atmosphere. In this study, we explored the connection between measured mixing ratio of SO2 and observed long-term (duration>3 hr) and short-term (duration<1.5 hr) NPF events at a semi-urban site in Toronto. Apparent NPF rates (J30) showed a moderate correlation with the concentration of sulfuric acid ([H2SO4]) calculated from the measured mixing ratio of SO2 in long-term NPF events and some short-term NPF events (Category I) (R2=0.66). The exponent in the fitting line of J30~[H2SO4]n in these events was 1.6. It was also found that SO2 mixing ratios varied a lot during long-term NPF events, leading to a significant variation of new particle counts. In the SO2-unexplained short-term NPF events (Category II), analysis showed that new particles were formed aloft and then mixed down to the ground level. Further calculation results showed that sulfuric acid oxidized from SO2 probably made a negligible contribution to the growth of >10 nm new particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Meng
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Yujiao Zhu
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Greg J Evans
- Southern Ontario Centre for Atmospheric Aerosol Research, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Cheol-Heon Jeong
- Southern Ontario Centre for Atmospheric Aerosol Research, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Xiaohong Yao
- Key Lab of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Southern Ontario Centre for Atmospheric Aerosol Research, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3E5, Canada.
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16
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Bianchi F, Praplan AP, Sarnela N, Dommen J, Kürten A, Ortega IK, Schobesberger S, Junninen H, Simon M, Tröstl J, Jokinen T, Sipilä M, Adamov A, Amorim A, Almeida J, Breitenlechner M, Duplissy J, Ehrhart S, Flagan RC, Franchin A, Hakala J, Hansel A, Heinritzi M, Kangasluoma J, Keskinen H, Kim J, Kirkby J, Laaksonen A, Lawler MJ, Lehtipalo K, Leiminger M, Makhmutov V, Mathot S, Onnela A, Petäjä T, Riccobono F, Rissanen MP, Rondo L, Tomé A, Virtanen A, Viisanen Y, Williamson C, Wimmer D, Winkler PM, Ye P, Curtius J, Kulmala M, Worsnop DR, Donahue NM, Baltensperger U. Insight into acid-base nucleation experiments by comparison of the chemical composition of positive, negative, and neutral clusters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:13675-13684. [PMID: 25406110 DOI: 10.1021/es502380b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the nucleation of sulfuric acid together with two bases (ammonia and dimethylamine), at the CLOUD chamber at CERN. The chemical composition of positive, negative, and neutral clusters was studied using three Atmospheric Pressure interface-Time Of Flight (APi-TOF) mass spectrometers: two were operated in positive and negative mode to detect the chamber ions, while the third was equipped with a nitrate ion chemical ionization source allowing detection of neutral clusters. Taking into account the possible fragmentation that can happen during the charging of the ions or within the first stage of the mass spectrometer, the cluster formation proceeded via essentially one-to-one acid-base addition for all of the clusters, independent of the type of the base. For the positive clusters, the charge is carried by one excess protonated base, while for the negative clusters it is carried by a deprotonated acid; the same is true for the neutral clusters after these have been ionized. During the experiments involving sulfuric acid and dimethylamine, it was possible to study the appearance time for all the clusters (positive, negative, and neutral). It appeared that, after the formation of the clusters containing three molecules of sulfuric acid, the clusters grow at a similar speed, independent of their charge. The growth rate is then probably limited by the arrival rate of sulfuric acid or cluster-cluster collision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Bianchi
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , Villigen 5232, Switzerland
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Bzdek BR, Horan AJ, Pennington MR, Janechek NJ, Baek J, Stanier CO, Johnston MV. Silicon is a frequent component of atmospheric nanoparticles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:11137-45. [PMID: 25203137 DOI: 10.1021/es5026933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticles are the largest fraction of aerosol loading by number. Knowledge of the chemical components present in nanoparticulate matter is needed to understand nanoparticle health and climatic impacts. In this work, we present field measurements using the Nano Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (NAMS), which provides quantitative elemental composition of nanoparticles around 20 nm diameter. NAMS measurements indicate that the element silicon (Si) is a frequent component of nanoparticles. Nanoparticulate Si is most abundant in locations heavily impacted by anthropogenic activities. Wind direction correlations suggest the sources of Si are diffuse, and diurnal trends suggest nanoparticulate Si may result from photochemical processing of gas phase Si-containing compounds, such as cyclic siloxanes. Atmospheric modeling of oxidized cyclic siloxanes is consistent with a diffuse photochemical source of aerosol Si. More broadly, these observations indicate a previously overlooked anthropogenic source of nanoaerosol mass. Further investigation is needed to fully resolve its atmospheric role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan R Bzdek
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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18
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Klems JP, Johnston MV. Origin and impact of particle-to-particle variations in composition measurements with the nano-aerosol mass spectrometer. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:6995-7003. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6800-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Bzdek BR, DePalma JW, Ridge DP, Laskin J, Johnston MV. Fragmentation Energetics of Clusters Relevant to Atmospheric New Particle Formation. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:3276-85. [DOI: 10.1021/ja3124509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bryan R. Bzdek
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark,
Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Joseph W. DePalma
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark,
Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Douglas P. Ridge
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark,
Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Julia Laskin
- Chemical and Material Sciences
Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, P.O. Box 999, K8-88, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Murray V. Johnston
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark,
Delaware 19716, United States
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Bzdek BR, Horan AJ, Pennington MR, DePalma JW, Zhao J, Jen CN, Hanson DR, Smith JN, McMurry PH, Johnston MV. Quantitative and time-resolved nanoparticle composition measurements during new particle formation. Faraday Discuss 2013; 165:25-43. [DOI: 10.1039/c3fd00039g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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21
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Mineral dust photochemistry induces nucleation events in the presence of SO2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:20842-7. [PMID: 23213230 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1212297109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Large quantities of mineral dust particles are frequently ejected into the atmosphere through the action of wind. The surface of dust particles acts as a sink for many gases, such as sulfur dioxide. It is well known that under most conditions, sulfur dioxide reacts on dust particle surfaces, leading to the production of sulfate ions. In this report, for specific atmospheric conditions, we provide evidence for an alternate pathway in which a series of reactions under solar UV light produces first gaseous sulfuric acid as an intermediate product before surface-bound sulfate. Metal oxides present in mineral dust act as atmospheric photocatalysts promoting the formation of gaseous OH radicals, which initiate the conversion of SO(2) to H(2)SO(4) in the vicinity of dust particles. Under low dust conditions, this process may lead to nucleation events in the atmosphere. The laboratory findings are supported by recent field observations near Beijing, China, and Lyon, France.
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Temelso B, Phan TN, Shields GC. Computational Study of the Hydration of Sulfuric Acid Dimers: Implications for Acid Dissociation and Aerosol Formation. J Phys Chem A 2012; 116:9745-58. [DOI: 10.1021/jp3054394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Berhane Temelso
- Dean’s Office, College of Arts and Sciences,
and Department of Chemistry, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania 17837,
United States
| | - Thuong Ngoc Phan
- Dean’s Office, College of Arts and Sciences,
and Department of Chemistry, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania 17837,
United States
| | - George C. Shields
- Dean’s Office, College of Arts and Sciences,
and Department of Chemistry, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania 17837,
United States
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