1
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Stampi-Bombelli V, Storione A, Grossmann Q, Mazzotti M. On Comparing Packed Beds and Monoliths for CO 2 Capture from Air Through Experiments, Theory, and Modeling. Ind Eng Chem Res 2024; 63:11637-11653. [PMID: 38983186 PMCID: PMC11228921 DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.4c01392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
This study compares the performance of amine-functionalized γ-alumina sorbents in the form of 3 mm γ-alumina pellets and of a γ-alumina wash-coated monolith for CO2 capture for direct air capture (DAC). Breakthrough experiments were conducted on the two contactors to analyze the adsorption kinetics and performance for different gas feeds. A constant pattern analysis revealed dominant mass transfer resistances in the gas film and in the pores, with axial dispersion also observed, particularly at higher concentrations. A 1D, physical model was used to fit the experiments and thus to estimate mass transfer and axial dispersion coefficients, which appear to be consistent with the hypotheses derived from constant pattern analysis. A dual kinetic model to describe mass transfer was found to better describe the tail behavior in the monolith, whereas a pseudo-first-order model was sufficient to describe breakthroughs on packed beds. A substantial two-order magnitude decrease in mass transfer coefficients was noted when reducing the feed concentration from 5.6% to 400 ppm CO2, thus underscoring the significant mass transfer limitations observed in DAC. Comparison between the contactors revealed notably higher mass transfer coefficients in the monolith compared to the packed beds, which are attributed to shorter diffusion lengths and lower equilibrium capacity. While the faster mass transfer coefficients observed in the monolith experiments led to reduced specific energy consumption and increased adsorption productivity compared to the packed bed at 400 ppm, no significant improvement was observed for the same process at the higher concentration of 5.6% CO2 in the feed. This finding highlights the need to tailor the contactor design to the specific gas separation requirements. This research contributes to the understanding and quantification of mass transfer kinetics at DAC concentrations in both packed bed and monolith contactors. It demonstrates the crucial role of the contactor in DAC systems and the importance of optimizing the adsorption step to enhance productivity and DAC performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alba Storione
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering (DICAM), Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, via Terracini 28, Bologna 40131, Italy
| | - Quirin Grossmann
- Institute of Energy and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Marco Mazzotti
- Institute of Energy and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
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2
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Moretti C, Patil V, Falter C, Geissbühler L, Patt A, Steinfeld A. Technical, economic and environmental analysis of solar thermochemical production of drop-in fuels. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 901:166005. [PMID: 37541501 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
This study analyzes the technical performance, costs and life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the production of various fuels using air-captured water and CO2, and concentrated solar energy as the source of high-temperature process heat. The solar thermochemical fuel production pathway utilizes a ceria-based redox cycle for splitting water and CO2 to syngas - a tailored mixture of H2 and CO - which in turn is further converted to liquid hydrocarbon fuels. The cycle is driven by concentrated solar heat and supplemented by a high-temperature thermal energy storage for round-the-clock continuous operation. The study examines three locations with high direct normal irradiation using a baseline heliostat field reflective area of 1 km2 for the production of six fuels, i.e. jet fuel and diesel via Fischer-Tropsch, methanol, gasoline via methanol, dimethyl ether, and hydrogen. Two scenarios are considered: near-term future by the year 2030 and long-term future beyond 2030. In the near-term future in Sierra Gorda (Chile), the minimum fuel selling price is estimated at around 76 €/GJ (2.5 €/L) for jet fuel and diesel, 65 €/GJ for methanol, gasoline (via methanol) and dimethyl ether (DME), and 42 €/GJ for hydrogen (excluding liquefaction). In the long-term future, with advancements in solar receiver, redox reactor, high-temperature heat recovery and direct air capture technologies, the industrial-scale plant could achieve a solar-to-fuel efficiency up to 13-19 %, depending on the target fuel, resulting in a minimum fuel selling price of 16-38 €/GJ (0.6-1.3 €/L) for jet fuel and diesel, and 14-32 €/GJ for methanol, gasoline, and DME, making these fuels synthesized from sunlight and air cost-competitive vis-à-vis e-fuels. To produce the same fuels in Tabernas (Spain) and Ouarzazate (Morocco) as in Sierra Gorda, the production cost would increase by 22-33 %. Greenhouse gas savings can be over 80 % already in the near-term future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Moretti
- ETH Zurich, Department of Environmental Systems Science, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Vikas Patil
- ETH Zurich, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Anthony Patt
- ETH Zurich, Department of Environmental Systems Science, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Aldo Steinfeld
- ETH Zurich, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
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3
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Arango Hoyos BE, Osorio HF, Valencia Gómez EK, Guerrero Sánchez J, Del Canto Palominos AP, Larrain FA, Prías Barragán JJ. Exploring the capture and desorption of CO 2 on graphene oxide foams supported by computational calculations. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14476. [PMID: 37660192 PMCID: PMC10475065 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41683-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, the highest levels of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere have been recorded, with carbon dioxide (CO2) being one of the GHGs that most concerns mankind due to the rate at which it is generated on the planet. Given its long time of permanence in the atmosphere (between 100 to 150 years); this has deployed research in the scientific field focused on the absorption and desorption of CO2 in the atmosphere. This work presents the study of CO2 adsorption employing materials based on graphene oxide (GO), such as GO foams with different oxidation percentages (3.00%, 5.25%, and 9.00%) in their structure, obtained via an environmentally friendly method. The characterization of CO2 adsorption was carried out in a closed system, within which were placed the GO foams and other CO2 adsorbent materials (zeolite and silica gel). Through a controlled chemical reaction, production of CO2 was conducted to obtain CO2 concentration curves inside the system and calculate from these the efficiency, obtained between 86.28 and 92.20%, yield between 60.10 and 99.50%, and effectiveness of CO2 adsorption of the materials under study. The results obtained suggest that GO foams are a promising material for carbon capture and the future development of a new clean technology, given their highest CO2 adsorption efficiency and yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan E Arango Hoyos
- Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Sciences, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, 7941169, Santiago, Chile
| | - H Franco Osorio
- Electronic Instrumentation Technology Program, Faculty of Basic Science and Technology, Universidad del Quindío, 630001, Armenia, Colombia
| | - E K Valencia Gómez
- Doctoral Program in Physical Sciences, Interdisciplinary Institute of Sciences, Universidad del Quindío, 630004, Armenia, Colombia
| | - J Guerrero Sánchez
- Virtual Materials Modeling Laboratory (LVMM), Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ensenada, 22860, Mexico
| | - A P Del Canto Palominos
- Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Sciences, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, 7941169, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe A Larrain
- Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Sciences, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, 7941169, Santiago, Chile
| | - J J Prías Barragán
- Electronic Instrumentation Technology Program, Faculty of Basic Science and Technology, Universidad del Quindío, 630001, Armenia, Colombia.
- Doctoral Program in Physical Sciences, Interdisciplinary Institute of Sciences, Universidad del Quindío, 630004, Armenia, Colombia.
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4
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Yang M, Wang S, Xu L. Hydrophobic functionalized amine-impregnated resin for CO2 capture in humid air. Sep Purif Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
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5
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Wilson SM. The potential of direct air capture using adsorbents in cold climates. iScience 2022; 25:105564. [PMID: 36479149 PMCID: PMC9720019 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Global warming threatens the entire planet, and solutions such as direct air capture (DAC) can be used to meet net-zero goals and go beyond. This study investigates using DAC in a 5-step temperature vacuum swing adsorption (TVSA) cycle with adsorbents' Li-X and Na-X, readily available industrial zeolites, to capture and concentrate CO2 from air in cold climates. From this study, we report that Na-X in cold conditions has the highest known CO2 adsorption capacity in air of 2.54 mmol/g. This combined with Na-X's low CO2 heat of adsorption, and fast uptake-rate in comparison to other benchmark materials, allowed for Na-X operating in cold conditions to have the lowest reported DAC operating energy of 1.1 MWh/tonCO2. These findings from this study show the promise of this process in cold climates of Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and Antarctica to be part of the solution to global warming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M.W. Wilson
- TerraFixing Inc., 66 Kings Landing Private, Ottawa, ON K1S5P8, Canada
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6
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Boone P, He Y, Lieber AR, Steckel JA, Rosi NL, Hornbostel KM, Wilmer CE. Designing optimal core-shell MOFs for direct air capture. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:16085-16096. [PMID: 36082903 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr03177a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), along with other novel adsorbents, are frequently proposed as candidate materials to selectively adsorb CO2 for carbon capture processes. However, adsorbents designed to strongly bind CO2 nearly always bind H2O strongly (sometimes even more so). Given that water is present in significant quantities in the inlet streams of most carbon capture processes, a method that avoids H2O competition for the CO2 binding sites would be technologically valuable. In this paper, we consider a novel core-shell MOF design strategy, where a high-CO2-capacity MOF "core" is protected from competitive H2O-binding via a MOF "shell" that has very slow water diffusion. We consider a high-frequency adsorption/desorption cycle that regenerates the adsorbents before water can pass through the shell and enter the core. To identify optimal core-shell MOF pairs, we use a combination of experimental measurements, computational modeling, and multiphysics modeling. Our library of MOFs is created from two starting MOFs-UiO-66 and UiO-67-augmented with 30 possible functional group variations, yielding 1740 possible core-shell MOF pairs. After defining a performance score to rank these pairs, we identified 10 core-shell MOF candidates that significantly outperform any of the MOFs functioning alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Boone
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
| | - Yiwen He
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Austin R Lieber
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
| | - Janice A Steckel
- United States Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA 15236, USA
| | - Nathaniel L Rosi
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Katherine M Hornbostel
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
| | - Christopher E Wilmer
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
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7
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Low MY(A, Barton L, Pini R, Petit C. Analytical review of the current state of knowledge of adsorption materials and processes for direct air capture. Chem Eng Res Des 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2022.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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8
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Min YJ, Ganesan A, Realff MJ, Jones CW. Direct Air Capture of CO 2 Using Poly(ethyleneimine)-Functionalized Expanded Poly(tetrafluoroethylene)/Silica Composite Structured Sorbents. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:40992-41002. [PMID: 36047596 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c11143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The rapidly increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration has driven research into the development of cost- and energy-efficient materials and processes for the direct air capture of CO2 (DAC). Solid-supported amine materials can give high CO2 uptakes and acceptable sorption kinetics, but they are generally prepared in powder forms that are likely not practically deployable in large-scale operations due to significant pressure drops associated with packed-bed gas-solid contactors. To this end, the development of effective gas-solid contactors for CO2 capture technologies is important to allow processing high flow rates of gas with low-pressure drops and high mass transfer rates. In this study, we demonstrate new laminate-supported amine CO2 sorbents based on the impregnation of low-molecular-weight, branched poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI) into an expanded poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (ePTFE) sheet matrix containing embedded silica particles to form free-standing sheets amenable to incorporation into structured gas-solid contactors. The free-standing sheets are functionalized with PEI using a highly scalable wet impregnation method. This method allowed controllable PEI distribution and enough porosity retained inside the sheets to enable practical CO2 capacities ranging from 0.4 to 1.6 mmol CO2/gsorbent under dry conditions. Reversible CO2 capacities are achieved under both dry and humid temperature swing cycles, indicating promising material stability. The specific thermal energy requirement for the regeneration based on the measured CO2 and water capacities is 287 kJ/mol CO2, where the molar ratio of water to CO2 of 3.1 is achieved using hydrophobic materials. This is the lowest molar ratio among published DAC sorbents. A larger laminate module is tested under conditions closer to larger-scale operations (linear velocities 0.03, 0.05, and 0.1 m/sec) and demonstrates a stable capacity of 0.80 CO2/gsorbent over five cycles of CO2 adsorption and steam regeneration. The PEI-impregnated ePTFE/silica composite sorbent/contactors demonstrate promising DAC performance derived from the amine-filled silica particles contained in hydrophobic ePTFE domains to reduce water sorption and its concomitant regeneration energy penalty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youn Ji Min
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Arvind Ganesan
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Matthew J Realff
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Christopher W Jones
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
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9
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Song M, Rim G, Kong F, Priyadarshini P, Rosu C, Lively RP, Jones CW. Cold-Temperature Capture of Carbon Dioxide with Water Coproduction from Air Using Commercial Zeolites. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c02041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- MinGyu Song
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Guanhe Rim
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Fanhe Kong
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Pranjali Priyadarshini
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Cornelia Rosu
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Ryan P. Lively
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Christopher W. Jones
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
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10
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Dods MN, Weston SC, Long JR. Prospects for Simultaneously Capturing Carbon Dioxide and Harvesting Water from Air. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2204277. [PMID: 35980944 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202204277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is expected to require large-scale deployment of carbon dioxide removal strategies. Prominent among these strategies is direct air capture with sequestration (DACS), which encompasses the removal and long-term storage of atmospheric CO2 by purely engineered means. Because it does not require arable land or copious amounts of freshwater, DACS is already attractive in the context of sustainable development, but opportunities to improve its sustainability still exist. Leveraging differences in the chemistry of CO2 and water adsorption within porous solids, here, the prospect of simultaneously removing water alongside CO2 in direct air capture operations is investigated. In many cases, the co-adsorbed water can be desorbed separately from chemisorbed CO2 molecules, enabling efficient harvesting of water from air. Depending upon the material employed and process conditions, the desorbed water can be of sufficiently high purity for industrial, agricultural, or potable use and can thus improve regional water security. Additionally, the recovered water can offset a portion of the costs associated with DACS. In this Perspective, molecular- and process-level insights are combined to identify routes toward realizing this nascent yet enticing concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew N Dods
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Simon C Weston
- ExxonMobil Technology and Engineering Company, Annandale, NJ, 08801, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Long
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
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11
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Wiegner JF, Grimm A, Weimann L, Gazzani M. Optimal Design and Operation of Solid Sorbent Direct Air Capture Processes at Varying Ambient Conditions. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c00681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jan F. Wiegner
- Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Alexa Grimm
- Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lukas Weimann
- Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Matteo Gazzani
- Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
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12
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Zhu X, Xie W, Wu J, Miao Y, Xiang C, Chen C, Ge B, Gan Z, Yang F, Zhang M, O'Hare D, Li J, Ge T, Wang R. Recent advances in direct air capture by adsorption. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:6574-6651. [PMID: 35815699 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00970b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Significant progress has been made in direct air capture (DAC) in recent years. Evidence suggests that the large-scale deployment of DAC by adsorption would be technically feasible for gigatons of CO2 capture annually. However, great efforts in adsorption-based DAC technologies are still required. This review provides an exhaustive description of materials development, adsorbent shaping, in situ characterization, adsorption mechanism simulation, process design, system integration, and techno-economic analysis of adsorption-based DAC over the past five years; and in terms of adsorbent development, affordable DAC adsorbents such as amine-containing porous materials with large CO2 adsorption capacities, fast kinetics, high selectivity, and long-term stability under ultra-low CO2 concentration and humid conditions. It is also critically important to develop efficient DAC adsorptive processes. Research and development in structured adsorbents that operate at low-temperature with excellent CO2 adsorption capacities and kinetics, novel gas-solid contactors with low heat and mass transfer resistances, and energy-efficient regeneration methods using heat, vacuum, and steam purge is needed to commercialize adsorption-based DAC. The synergy between DAC and carbon capture technologies for point sources can help in mitigating climate change effects in the long-term. Further investigations into DAC applications in the aviation, agriculture, energy, and chemical industries are required as well. This work benefits researchers concerned about global energy and environmental issues, and delivers perspective views for further deployment of negative-emission technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuancan Zhu
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Wenwen Xie
- Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131, Germany
| | - Junye Wu
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Yihe Miao
- China-UK Low Carbon College, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 3 Yinlian Road, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Chengjie Xiang
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Chunping Chen
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Bingyao Ge
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Zhuozhen Gan
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Fan Yang
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Man Zhang
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Dermot O'Hare
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Jia Li
- China-UK Low Carbon College, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 3 Yinlian Road, Shanghai 201306, China.,Jiangmen Laboratory for Carbon and Climate Science and Technology, No. 29 Jinzhou Road, Jiangmen, 529100, China.,The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Guangzhou), No. 2 Huan Shi Road South, Nansha, Guangzhou, 511458, China
| | - Tianshu Ge
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Ruzhu Wang
- Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
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13
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Kikkawa S, Amamoto K, Fujiki Y, Hirayama J, Kato G, Miura H, Shishido T, Yamazoe S. Direct Air Capture of CO 2 Using a Liquid Amine-Solid Carbamic Acid Phase-Separation System Using Diamines Bearing an Aminocyclohexyl Group. ACS ENVIRONMENTAL AU 2022; 2:354-362. [PMID: 37101968 PMCID: PMC10125313 DOI: 10.1021/acsenvironau.1c00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
The phase separation between a liquid amine and the solid carbamic acid exhibited >99% CO2 removal efficiency under a 400 ppm CO2 flow system using diamines bearing an aminocyclohexyl group. Among them, isophorone diamine [IPDA; 3-(aminomethyl)-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohexylamine] exhibited the highest CO2 removal efficiency. IPDA reacted with CO2 in a CO2/IPDA molar ratio of ≥1 even in H2O as a solvent. The captured CO2 was completely desorbed at 333 K because the dissolved carbamate ion releases CO2 at low temperatures. The reusability of IPDA under CO2 adsorption-and-desorption cycles without degradation, the >99% efficiency kept for 100 h under direct air capture conditions, and the high CO2 capture rate (201 mmol/h for 1 mol of amine) suggest that the phase separation system using IPDA is robust and durable for practical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soichi Kikkawa
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
- Elements
Strategy Initiative for Catalysts & Batteries (ESICB), Kyoto University, 1-30 Goryo-Ohara, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615−8245, Japan
| | - Kazushi Amamoto
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
| | - Yu Fujiki
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
| | - Jun Hirayama
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
- Elements
Strategy Initiative for Catalysts & Batteries (ESICB), Kyoto University, 1-30 Goryo-Ohara, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615−8245, Japan
| | - Gen Kato
- Department
of Applied Chemistry for Environment, Graduate School of Urban Environmental
Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
| | - Hiroki Miura
- Elements
Strategy Initiative for Catalysts & Batteries (ESICB), Kyoto University, 1-30 Goryo-Ohara, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615−8245, Japan
- Research
Center for Hydrogen Energy-Based Society, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
- Department
of Applied Chemistry for Environment, Graduate School of Urban Environmental
Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Shishido
- Elements
Strategy Initiative for Catalysts & Batteries (ESICB), Kyoto University, 1-30 Goryo-Ohara, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615−8245, Japan
- Research
Center for Hydrogen Energy-Based Society, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
- Department
of Applied Chemistry for Environment, Graduate School of Urban Environmental
Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
| | - Seiji Yamazoe
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
- Elements
Strategy Initiative for Catalysts & Batteries (ESICB), Kyoto University, 1-30 Goryo-Ohara, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615−8245, Japan
- Research
Center for Hydrogen Energy-Based Society, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192−0397, Japan
- Precursory
Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), 4-1-8, Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
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14
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Modeling of Vacuum Temperature Swing Adsorption for Direct Air Capture Using Aspen Adsorption. CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/cleantechnol4020015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The paper evaluates the performance of an adsorption-based technology for CO2 capture directly from the air at the industrial scale. The approach is based on detailed mass and energy balance dynamic modeling of the vacuum temperature swing adsorption (VTSA) process in Aspen Adsorption software. The first step of the approach aims to validate the modeling thanks to published experimental data for a lab-scale bed module in terms of mass transfer and energy performance on a packed bed using amine-functionalized material. A parametric study on the main operating conditions, i.e., air velocity, air relative moisture, air temperature, and CO2 capture rate, is undertaken to assess the global performance and energy consumption. A method of up-scaling the lab-scale bed module to industrial module is exposed and mass transfer and energy performances of the industrial module are provided. The scale up from lab scale to the industrial size is conservative in terms of thermal energy consumption while the electrical consumption is very sensitive to the bed design. Further study related to the engineering solutions available to reach high global gas velocity are required. This could be offered by monolith-shape adsorbents.
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15
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A Comparative Study of Different Sorbents in the Context of Direct Air Capture (DAC): Evaluation of Key Performance Indicators and Comparisons. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12052618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Direct air capture can be based on an adsorption system, and the used sorbent (chemisorbents or physisorbents) influences process. In this work, two amine-functionalized sorbents, as chemisorbents, and three different metal organic frameworks, as physisorbents, are considered and compared in terms of some key performance indicators. This was carried out by developing a mathematical model describing the adsorption and desorption stages. An independent analysis was carried out in order to verify data reported in the literature. Results show that the equilibrium loading is a critical parameter for adsorption capacity, energy consumption, and cost. The considered metal organic frameworks are characterized by a lower equilibrium loading (10−4 mol/kg) compared to chemisorbents (10−1 mol/kg). For this reason, physisorbents have higher overall energy consumptions and costs, while capturing a lower amount of carbon dioxide. A reasonable agreement is found on the basis of the operating conditions of the Climeworks company, modelling the use of the same amine cellulose-based sorbent. The same order of magnitude is found for total costs (751 USD/tonneCO2 for our analysis, compared to the value of 600 USD/tonneCO2 proposed by this company).
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16
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Rim G, Kong F, Song M, Rosu C, Priyadarshini P, Lively RP, Jones CW. Sub-Ambient Temperature Direct Air Capture of CO 2 using Amine-Impregnated MIL-101(Cr) Enables Ambient Temperature CO 2 Recovery. JACS AU 2022; 2:380-393. [PMID: 35252988 PMCID: PMC8889612 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.1c00414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Due to the dramatically increased atmospheric CO2 concentration and consequential climate change, significant effort has been made to develop sorbents to directly capture CO2 from ambient air (direct air capture, DAC) to achieve negative CO2 emissions in the immediate future. However, most developed sorbents have been studied under a limited array of temperature (>20 °C) and humidity conditions. In particular, the dearth of experimental data on DAC at sub-ambient conditions (e.g., -30 to 20 °C) and under humid conditions will severely hinder the large-scale implementation of DAC because the world has annual average temperatures ranging from -30 to 30 °C depending on the location and essentially no place has a zero absolute humidity. To this end, we suggest that understanding CO2 adsorption from ambient air at sub-ambient temperatures, below 20 °C, is crucial because colder temperatures represent important practical operating conditions and because such temperatures may provide conditions where new sorbent materials or enhanced process performance might be achieved. Here we demonstrate that MIL-101(Cr) materials impregnated with amines (TEPA, tetraethylenepentamine, or PEI, poly(ethylenimine)) offer promising adsorption and desorption behavior under DAC conditions in both the presence and absence of humidity under a wide range of temperatures (-20 to 25 °C). Depending on the amine loading and adsorption temperature, the sorbents show different CO2 capture behavior. With 30 and 50 wt % amine loadings, the sorbents show weak and strong chemisorption-dominant CO2 capture behavior, respectively. Interestingly, at -20 °C, the CO2 adsorption capacity of 30 wt % TEPA-impregnated MIL-101(Cr) significantly increased up to 1.12 mmol/g from 0.39 mmol/g at ambient conditions (25 °C) due to the enhanced weak chemisorption. More importantly, the sorbents also show promising working capacities (0.72 mmol/g) over 15 small temperature swing cycles with an ultralow regeneration temperature (-20 °C sorption to 25 °C desorption). The sub-ambient DAC performance of the sorbents is further enhanced under humid conditions, showing promising and stable CO2 working capacities over multiple humid small temperature swing cycles. These results demonstrate that appropriately designed DAC sorbents can operate in a weak chemisorption modality at low temperatures even in the presence of humidity. Significant energy savings may be realized via the utilization of small temperature swings enabled by this weak chemisorption behavior. This work suggests that significant work on DAC materials that operate at low, sub-ambient temperatures is warranted for possible deployment in temperate and polar climates.
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17
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Research needs targeting direct air capture of carbon dioxide: Material & process performance characteristics under realistic environmental conditions. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-021-0976-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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18
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Abstract
Aviation and shipping currently contribute approximately 8% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions, with growth in tourism and global trade projected to increase this contribution further1-3. Carbon-neutral transportation is feasible with electric motors powered by rechargeable batteries, but is challenging, if not impossible, for long-haul commercial travel, particularly air travel4. A promising solution are drop-in fuels (synthetic alternatives for petroleum-derived liquid hydrocarbon fuels such as kerosene, gasoline or diesel) made from H2O and CO2 by solar-driven processes5-7. Among the many possible approaches, the thermochemical path using concentrated solar radiation as the source of high-temperature process heat offers potentially high production rates and efficiencies8, and can deliver truly carbon-neutral fuels if the required CO2 is obtained directly from atmospheric air9. If H2O is also extracted from air10, feedstock sourcing and fuel production can be colocated in desert regions with high solar irradiation and limited access to water resources. While individual steps of such a scheme have been implemented, here we demonstrate the operation of the entire thermochemical solar fuel production chain, from H2O and CO2 captured directly from ambient air to the synthesis of drop-in transportation fuels (for example, methanol and kerosene), with a modular 5 kWthermal pilot-scale solar system operated under field conditions. We further identify the research and development efforts and discuss the economic viability and policies required to bring these solar fuels to market.
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19
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Custelcean R. Direct air capture of CO 2 via crystal engineering. Chem Sci 2021; 12:12518-12528. [PMID: 34703538 PMCID: PMC8494026 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc04097a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This article presents a perspective view of the topic of direct air capture (DAC) of carbon dioxide and its role in mitigating climate change, focusing on a promising approach to DAC involving crystal engineering of metal-organic and hydrogen-bonded frameworks. The structures of these crystalline materials can be easily elucidated using X-ray and neutron diffraction methods, thereby allowing for systematic structure-property relationships studies, and precise tuning of their DAC performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radu Custelcean
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge TN 37831 USA
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20
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Synergies between Direct Air Capture Technologies and Solar Thermochemical Cycles in the Production of Methanol. ENERGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/en14164818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Methanol is an example of a valuable chemical that can be produced from water and carbon dioxide through a chemical process that is fully powered by concentrated solar thermal energy and involves three steps: direct air capture (DAC), thermochemical splitting and methanol synthesis. In the present work, we consider the whole value chain from the harvesting of raw materials to the final product. We also identify synergies between the aforementioned steps and collect them in five possible scenarios aimed to reduce the specific energy consumption. To assess the scenarios, we combined data from low and high temperature DAC with an Aspen Plus® model of a plant that includes water and carbon dioxide splitting units via thermochemical cycles (TCC), CO/CO2 separation, storage and methanol synthesis. We paid special attention to the energy required for the generation of low oxygen partial pressures in the reduction step of the TCC, as well as the overall water consumption. Results show that suggested synergies, in particular, co-generation, are effective and can lead to solar-to-fuel efficiencies up to 10.2% (compared to the 8.8% baseline). In addition, we appoint vacuum as the most adequate strategy for obtaining low oxygen partial pressures.
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21
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Sattari A, Ramazani A, Aghahosseini H, Aroua MK. The application of polymer containing materials in CO2 capturing via absorption and adsorption methods. J CO2 UTIL 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2021.101526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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22
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Abstract
Carbon capture from large sources and ambient air is one of the most promising strategies to curb the deleterious effect of greenhouse gases. Among different technologies, CO2 adsorption has drawn widespread attention mostly because of its low energy requirements. Considering that water vapor is a ubiquitous component in air and almost all CO2-rich industrial gas streams, understanding its impact on CO2 adsorption is of critical importance. Owing to the large diversity of adsorbents, water plays many different roles from a severe inhibitor of CO2 adsorption to an excellent promoter. Water may also increase the rate of CO2 capture or have the opposite effect. In the presence of amine-containing adsorbents, water is even necessary for their long-term stability. The current contribution is a comprehensive review of the effects of water whether in the gas feed or as adsorbent moisture on CO2 adsorption. For convenience, we discuss the effect of water vapor on CO2 adsorption over four broadly defined groups of materials separately, namely (i) physical adsorbents, including carbons, zeolites and MOFs, (ii) amine-functionalized adsorbents, and (iii) reactive adsorbents, including metal carbonates and oxides. For each category, the effects of humidity level on CO2 uptake, selectivity, and adsorption kinetics under different operational conditions are discussed. Whenever possible, findings from different sources are compared, paying particular attention to both similarities and inconsistencies. For completeness, the effect of water on membrane CO2 separation is also discussed, albeit briefly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel M Kolle
- Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Mohammadreza Fayaz
- Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Abdelhamid Sayari
- Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
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23
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Castel C, Bounaceur R, Favre E. Membrane Processes for Direct Carbon Dioxide Capture From Air: Possibilities and Limitations. FRONTIERS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fceng.2021.668867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The direct capture of CO2 from air (DAC) has been shown a growing interest for the mitigation of greenhouse gases but remains controversial among the engineering community. The high dilution level of CO2 in air (0.04%) indeed increases the energy requirement and cost of the process compared to carbon capture from flue gases (with CO2 concentrations around 15% for coal power plants). Until now, solid sorbents (functionalized silica, ion exchange resins, metal–organic frameworks, etc.) have been proposed to achieve DAC, with a few large-scale demonstration units. Gas-liquid absorption in alkaline solutions is also explored. Besides adsorption and absorption, membrane processes are another key gas separation technology but have not been investigated for DAC yet. The objective of this study is to explore the separation performances of a membrane unit for CO2 capture from air through a generic engineering approach. The role of membrane material performances and the impact of the operating conditions of the process on energy requirement and module production capacity are investigated. Membranes are shown to require a high selectivity in order to achieve purity in no more than two stages. The specific energy requirement is globally higher than that of the adsorption and absorption processes, together with higher productivity levels. Guidelines on the possibilities and limitations of membranes for DAC are finally proposed.
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24
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Keefer BG, Ruthven DM. Synergies between adsorption and energy conversion technologies. ADSORPTION 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10450-021-00297-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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25
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Schellevis M, Jacobs T, Brilman W. CO2 Capture From Air in a Radial Flow Contactor: Batch or Continuous Operation? FRONTIERS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fceng.2020.596555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The capture of CO2 from the atmosphere via Direct Air Capture using solid supported-amine sorbents is an important option to reduce the atmospheric concentration of CO2. It addresses CO2 emissions from dispersed sources and delivers a location independent, sustainable carbon source. This study evaluates the possibility for a continuous adsorption process for direct air capture in a radial flow contactor, using both batch and continuous mode of operation. Gas and solid flow were varied to determine hydrodynamic feasible operating conditions. The operation modes are compared by their capture efficiencies in the optimal adsorption time range of 0.5 tstoB and 1.5 tstoB. A 15–25% lower capture efficiency is found for a continuous process compared to a batch process in the relevant range for direct air capture. This decline in gas-solid contact efficiency is more pronounced at longer adsorption time and higher superficial gas velocity. Overall, a batch process is preferred over a continuous process in the majority of operating conditions.
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26
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Analysis of direct capture of $${\hbox {CO}}_{2}$$ from ambient air via steam-assisted temperature–vacuum swing adsorption. ADSORPTION 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10450-020-00249-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIn this work, direct air capture (DAC) via adsorption is studied through the design and analysis of two temperature–vacuum swing adsorption (TVSA) cycles. In the first part, a novel way of describing the adsorption of $${\hbox {CO}}_{2}$$
CO
2
in presence of water vapor is proposed for co-adsorption kinetic and thermodynamic data gathered from the literature. Secondly, two TVSA cycle designs are proposed: one with a desorption step via external heating, and one with a steam purge. A schematic method for the determination of the cycle step times is proposed and a parametric study on the operating conditions is performed via cycle simulations using a detailed, first principles model. Finally, the two cycles are compared in terms of $${\hbox {CO}}_{2}$$
CO
2
production and energy consumption. The parametric study on the desorption time shows that there is a desorption time yielding the highest $${\hbox {CO}}_{2}$$
CO
2
production at low energy consumptions. Low evacuation pressures are necessary to reach high $${\hbox {CO}}_{2}$$
CO
2
production, but higher evacuation pressures show to be always favorable in terms of specific electrical energy requirements. A steam purge requires an additional thermal energy cost, but it not only allows decreasing the specific electrical energy consumptions, it also enhances $${\hbox {CO}}_{2}$$
CO
2
desorption kinetics and allows reaching higher $${\hbox {CO}}_{2}$$
CO
2
productions at milder evacuation pressures. The results of this work present the possibility to directly relate the availability of power and heat to the design of the cycle.
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Abstract
The solar thermochemical fuel pathway offers the possibility to defossilize the transportation sector by producing renewable fuels that emit significantly less greenhouse gases than conventional fuels over the whole life cycle. Especially for the aviation sector, the availability of renewable liquid hydrocarbon fuels enables climate impact goals to be reached. In this paper, both the geographical potential and life-cycle fuel production costs are analyzed. The assessment of the geographical potential of solar thermochemical fuels excludes areas based on sustainability criteria such as competing land use, protected areas, slope, or shifting sands. On the remaining suitable areas, the production potential surpasses the current global jet fuel demand by a factor of more than fifty, enabling all but one country to cover its own demand. In many cases, a single country can even supply the world demand for jet fuel. A dedicated economic model expresses the life-cycle fuel production costs as a function of the location, taking into account local financial conditions by estimating the national costs of capital. It is found that the lowest production costs are to be expected in Israel, Chile, Spain, and the USA, through a combination of high solar irradiation and low-level capital costs. The thermochemical energy conversion efficiency also has a strong influence on the costs, scaling the size of the solar concentrator. Increasing the efficiency from 15% to 25%, the production costs are reduced by about 20%. In the baseline case, the global jet fuel demand could be covered at costs between 1.58 and 1.83 €/L with production locations in South America, the United States, and the Mediterranean region. The flat progression of the cost-supply curves indicates that production costs remain relatively constant even at very high production volumes.
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28
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Wilson SMW, Tezel FH. Direct Dry Air Capture of CO2 Using VTSA with Faujasite Zeolites. Ind Eng Chem Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b04803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sean M. W. Wilson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Ottawa, 161 Louis-Pasteur, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - F. Handan Tezel
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Ottawa, 161 Louis-Pasteur, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
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29
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Custelcean R, Williams NJ, Garrabrant KA, Agullo P, Brethomé FM, Martin HJ, Kidder MK. Direct Air Capture of CO2 with Aqueous Amino Acids and Solid Bis-iminoguanidines (BIGs). Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b04800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Radu Custelcean
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Neil J. Williams
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | | | - Pierrick Agullo
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | | | - Halie J. Martin
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Michelle K. Kidder
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
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30
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Ahn H. Equilibrium theory analysis of thermal regeneration of a humid adsorption column: Selection of optimal hot purge gas temperature. Chem Eng Res Des 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2019.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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31
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The Potential Role of Direct Air Capture in the German Energy Research Program—Results of a Multi-Dimensional Analysis. ENERGIES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/en12183443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions will be necessary in the coming decades to enable the global community to avoid the most dangerous consequences of man-made global warming. This fact is reflected in Germany’s 7th Federal Energy Research Program (EFP), which was adopted in 2018. Direct Air Capture (DAC) technologies used to absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere comprise one way to achieve these reductions in greenhouse gases. DAC has been identified as a technology (group) for which there are still major technology gaps. The intention of this article is to explore the potential role of DAC for the EFP by using a multi-dimensional analysis showing the technology’s possible contributions to the German government’s energy and climate policy goals and to German industry’s global reputation in the field of modern energy technologies, as well as the possibilities of integrating DAC into the existing energy system. The results show that the future role of DAC is affected by a variety of uncertainty factors. The technology is still in an early stage of development and has yet to prove its large-scale technical feasibility, as well as its economic viability. The results of the multi-dimensional evaluation, as well as the need for further technological development, integrated assessment, and systems-level analyses, justify the inclusion of DAC technology in national energy research programs like the EFP.
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32
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Wijesiri RP, Knowles GP, Yeasmin H, Hoadley AFA, Chaffee AL. Desorption Process for Capturing CO2 from Air with Supported Amine Sorbent. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b03140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Romesh P. Wijesiri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Gregory P. Knowles
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Hasina Yeasmin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Andrew F. A. Hoadley
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Alan L. Chaffee
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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Abstract
Capturing CO2 directly from air is one of the options for mitigating the effects global climate change, and therefore determining its cost is of great interest. A process model was proposed and validated using laboratory results for adsorption/desorption of CO2, with a branched polyethyleneimine (PEI) loaded mesocellular foam (MCF) silica sorbent. The model was subjected to a Multi-Objective Optimization (MOO) to evaluate the technoeconomic feasibility of the process and to identify the operating conditions which yielded the lowest cost. The objectives of the MOO were to minimize the cost of CO2 capture based on a discounted cash flow analysis, while simultaneously maximizing the quantity of CO2 captured. This optimization identified the minimum cost of capture as 612 USD tonne−1 for dry air entering the process at 25 °C, and 657 USD tonne−1 for air at 22 °C and 39% relative humidity. The latter represents more realistic conditions which can be expected for subtropical climates. The cost of direct air capture could be reduced by ~42% if waste heat was utilized for the process, and by ~27% if the kinetics of the sorbent could be improved by a factor of two. A combination of both would allow cost reductions of ~54%.
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34
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35
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Goeppert A, Zhang H, Sen R, Dang H, Prakash GKS. Oxidation-Resistant, Cost-Effective Epoxide-Modified Polyamine Adsorbents for CO 2 Capture from Various Sources Including Air. CHEMSUSCHEM 2019; 12:1712-1723. [PMID: 30770652 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201802978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
CO2 adsorbents based on the reaction of pentaethylenehexamine (PEHA) or tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) with propylene oxide (PO) were easily prepared in "one pot" by impregnation on a silica support in water. The starting materials were readily available and inexpensive, facilitating the production of the adsorbents on a large scale. The prepared polyamine/epoxide adsorbents were efficient in capturing CO2 and could be regenerated under mild conditions (50-85 °C). They displayed a much-improved stability compared with their unmodified amine counterparts, especially under oxidative conditions. Leaching of the active organic amine became minimal or nonexistent after treatment with the epoxide. The adsorption as well as desorption kinetics were also greatly improved. The polyamine/epoxide adsorbents were able to capture CO2 from various sources including ambient air and indoor air with CO2 concentrations of only 400-1000 ppm. The presence of water, far from being detrimental, increased the adsorption capacity. Their use for indoor air quality purposes was explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Goeppert
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, California, 90089-1661, USA
| | - Hang Zhang
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, California, 90089-1661, USA
| | - Raktim Sen
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, California, 90089-1661, USA
| | - Huong Dang
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, California, 90089-1661, USA
| | - G K Surya Prakash
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, California, 90089-1661, USA
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36
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37
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Wijesiri RP, Knowles GP, Yeasmin H, Hoadley AFA, Chaffee AL. CO2 Capture from Air Using Pelletized Polyethylenimine Impregnated MCF Silica. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.8b04973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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38
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Jahandar Lashaki M, Khiavi S, Sayari A. Stability of amine-functionalized CO 2 adsorbents: a multifaceted puzzle. Chem Soc Rev 2019; 48:3320-3405. [PMID: 31149678 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00877a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on important stability issues facing amine-functionalized CO2 adsorbents, including amine-grafted and amine-impregnated silicas, zeolites, metal-organic frameworks and carbons. During the past couple of decades, major advances were achieved in understanding and improving the performance of such materials, particularly in terms of CO2 adsorptive properties such as adsorption capacity, selectivity and kinetics. Nonetheless, to pave the way toward commercialization of adsorption-based CO2 capture technologies, in addition to other attributes, adsorbent materials should be stable over many thousands of adsorption-desorption cycles. Adsorbent stability, which is of utmost importance as it determines adsorbent lifetime and operational costs of CO2 capture, is a multifaceted issue involving thermal, hydrothermal, and chemical stability. Here we discuss the impact of the adsorbent physical and chemical properties, the feed gas composition and characteristics, and the adsorption-desorption operational parameters on the long-term stability of amine-functionalized CO2 adsorbents. We also review important insights associated with the underlying deactivation pathways of the adsorbents upon exposure to high temperature, oxygen, dry CO2, sulfur-containing compounds, nitrogen oxides, oxygen and steam. Finally, specific recommendations are provided to address outstanding stability issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoud Jahandar Lashaki
- Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada.
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39
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Rodríguez-Mosqueda R, Bramer EA, Brem G. CO2 capture from ambient air using hydrated Na2CO3 supported on activated carbon honeycombs with application to CO2 enrichment in greenhouses. Chem Eng Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2018.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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40
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Ng YC, Yang L, Jovanovic ZR. The Development and Validation of a Closed-Loop Experimental Setup for Investigating CO2 and H2O Coadsorption Kinetics under Conditions Relevant to Direct Air Capture. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.8b01508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Cheng Ng
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - LiZhong Yang
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Zoran R. Jovanovic
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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Yu J, Zhai Y, Chuang SSC. Water Enhancement in CO2 Capture by Amines: An Insight into CO2–H2O Interactions on Amine Films and Sorbents. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.7b05114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yu
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, 170 University Avenue, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Yuxin Zhai
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, 170 University Avenue, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Steven S. C. Chuang
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, 170 University Avenue, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
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42
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Rodríguez-Mosqueda R, Bramer EA, Roestenberg T, Brem G. Parametrical Study on CO 2 Capture from Ambient Air Using Hydrated K 2CO 3 Supported on an Activated Carbon Honeycomb. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018; 57:3628-3638. [PMID: 30022804 PMCID: PMC6046220 DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.8b00566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Potassium carbonate is a highly hygroscopic salt, and this aspect becomes important for CO2 capture from ambient air. Moreover, CO2 capture from ambient air requires adsorbents with a very low pressure drop. In the present work an activated carbon honeycomb monolith was coated with K2CO3, and it was treated with moist N2 to hydrate it. Its CO2 capture capacity was studied as a function of the temperature, the water content of the air, and the air flow rate, following a factorial design of experiments. It was found that the water vapor content in the air had the largest influence on the CO2 adsorption capacity. Moreover, the deliquescent character of K2CO3 led to the formation of an aqueous solution in the pores of the carrier, which regulated the temperature of the CO2 adsorption. The transition between the anhydrous and the hydrated forms of potassium carbonate was studied by means of FT-IR spectroscopy. It can be concluded that hydrated potassium carbonate is a promising and cheap alternative for CO2 capture from ambient air for the production of CO2-enriched air or for the synthesis of solar fuels, such as methanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Rodríguez-Mosqueda
- Department of Thermal Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Drienerlolaan 5, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Eddy A Bramer
- Department of Thermal Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Drienerlolaan 5, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Timo Roestenberg
- Department of Thermal Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Drienerlolaan 5, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Gerrit Brem
- Department of Thermal Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Drienerlolaan 5, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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43
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44
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Falter C, Pitz-Paal R. Water Footprint and Land Requirement of Solar Thermochemical Jet-Fuel Production. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:12938-12947. [PMID: 28946739 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The production of alternative fuels via the solar thermochemical pathway has the potential to provide supply security and to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. H2O and CO2 are converted to liquid hydrocarbon fuels using concentrated solar energy mediated by redox reactions of a metal oxide. Because attractive production locations are in arid regions, the water footprint and the land requirement of this fuel production pathway are analyzed. The water footprint consists of 7.4 liters per liter of jet fuel of direct demand on-site and 42.4 liters per liter of jet fuel of indirect demand, where the dominant contributions are the mining of the rare earth oxide ceria, the manufacturing of the solar concentration infrastructure, and the cleaning of the mirrors. The area-specific productivity is found to be 33 362 liters per hectare per year of jet fuel equivalents, where the land coverage is mainly due to the concentration of solar energy for heat and electricity. The water footprint and the land requirement of the solar thermochemical fuel pathway are larger than the best power-to-liquid pathways but an order of magnitude lower than the best biomass-to-liquid pathways. For the production of solar thermochemical fuels arid regions are best-suited, and for biofuels regions of a moderate and humid climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Falter
- Bauhaus Luftfahrt e.V. , Willy-Messerschmitt-Straße 1, 82024 Taufkirchen, Germany
| | - Robert Pitz-Paal
- DLR, Institute of Solar Research , Linder Höhe, 51147 Köln, Germany
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45
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Multi-Objective Optimization for Solid Amine CO2 Removal Assembly in Manned Spacecraft. ENTROPY 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/e19070348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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46
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yu
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325-3909, United States
| | - Steven S. C. Chuang
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325-3909, United States
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47
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Zhang H, Goeppert A, Olah GA, Prakash GS. Remarkable effect of moisture on the CO 2 adsorption of nano-silica supported linear and branched polyethylenimine. J CO2 UTIL 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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48
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van der Giesen C, Meinrenken CJ, Kleijn R, Sprecher B, Lackner KS, Kramer GJ. A Life Cycle Assessment Case Study of Coal-Fired Electricity Generation with Humidity Swing Direct Air Capture of CO 2 versus MEA-Based Postcombustion Capture. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:1024-1034. [PMID: 27935700 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Most carbon capture and storage (CCS) envisions capturing CO2 from flue gas. Direct air capture (DAC) of CO2 has hitherto been deemed unviable because of the higher energy associated with capture at low atmospheric concentrations. We present a Life Cycle Assessment of coal-fired electricity generation that compares monoethanolamine (MEA)-based postcombustion capture (PCC) of CO2 with distributed, humidity-swing-based direct air capture (HS-DAC). Given suitable temperature, humidity, wind, and water availability, HS-DAC can be largely passive. Comparing energy requirements of HS-DAC and MEA-PCC, we find that the parasitic load of HS-DAC is less than twice that of MEA-PCC (60-72 kJ/mol versus 33-46 kJ/mol, respectively). We also compare other environmental impacts as a function of net greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation: To achieve the same 73% mitigation as MEA-PCC, HS-DAC would increase nine other environmental impacts by on average 38%, whereas MEA-PCC would increase them by 31%. Powering distributed HS-DAC with photovoltaics (instead of coal) while including recapture of all background GHG, reduces this increase to 18%, hypothetically enabling coal-based electricity with net-zero life-cycle GHG. We conclude that, in suitable geographies, HS-DAC can complement MEA-PCC to enable CO2 capture independent of time and location of emissions and recapture background GHG from fossil-based electricity beyond flue stack emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coen van der Giesen
- Institute of Environmental Science, Leiden University , P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Christoph J Meinrenken
- Earth Institute, Columbia University , 500 W. 120th Street, 918 Mudd, New York, New York 10027, United States
- American Academy in Rome , Via Angelo Masina 5, 00153 Rome, Italy
| | - René Kleijn
- Institute of Environmental Science, Leiden University , P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin Sprecher
- Institute of Environmental Science, Leiden University , P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Klaus S Lackner
- Center for Negative Carbon Emissions, Arizona State University , PO Box 873005, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Gert Jan Kramer
- Institute of Environmental Science, Leiden University , P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University , Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
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49
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Sinha A, Darunte LA, Jones CW, Realff MJ, Kawajiri Y. Systems Design and Economic Analysis of Direct Air Capture of CO2 through Temperature Vacuum Swing Adsorption Using MIL-101(Cr)-PEI-800 and mmen-Mg2(dobpdc) MOF Adsorbents. Ind Eng Chem Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.6b03887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anshuman Sinha
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Lalit A. Darunte
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Christopher W. Jones
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Matthew J. Realff
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Yoshiaki Kawajiri
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
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50
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Sanz-Pérez ES, Murdock CR, Didas SA, Jones CW. Direct Capture of CO2 from Ambient Air. Chem Rev 2016; 116:11840-11876. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1044] [Impact Index Per Article: 130.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eloy S. Sanz-Pérez
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100, United States
- Department
of Chemical and Environmental Technology, ESCET, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - Christopher R. Murdock
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100, United States
| | - Stephanie A. Didas
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100, United States
| | - Christopher W. Jones
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100, United States
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