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Li H, Wei S, Liu N, Du Y, Ding G. Interspecies transfer of biosynthetic cobalamin for complete dechlorination of trichloroethene by Dehalococcoides mccartyi. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2022; 85:1335-1350. [PMID: 35290215 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2022.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Complete dechlorination of trichloroethene (TCE) by Dehalococcoides mccartyi is catalyzed by reductive dehalogenases (RDases), which possess cobalamin as the crucial cofactor. However, virtually all D. mccartyi isolated thus far are corrinoid auxotrophs. The exogenous addition of commercially available cobalamin for TCE-contaminated site decontamination is costly. In this study, TCE reduction by a D. mccartyi-containing microbial consortium utilizing biosynthetic cobalamin generated by interior corrinoid-producing organisms within this microbial consortium was studied. The results confirmed that subcultures without exogenous cobalamin in the medium were apparently unaffected and were able to successively metabolize TCE to nonchlorinated ethene. The 2-bromoethanesulfonate and ampicillin resistance tests results suggested that ampicillin-sensitive bacteria rather than methanogenic archaea within this microbial consortium were responsible for biosynthesizing cobalamin. Moreover, relatively stable carbon isotopic enrichment factor (ɛ-carbon) values of TCE were obtained regardless of whether exogenous cobalamin or selective inhibitors existed in the medium, indicating that the cobalamin biosynthesized by these organisms was absorbed and utilized by D. mccartyi for RDase synthesis and eventually participated in TCE reduction. Finally, the Illumina MiSeq sequencing analysis indicated that Desulfitobacterium and Acetobacterium in this microbial consortium were responsible for the de novo cobalamin biosynthesis to fulfill the requirements of D. mccartyi for TCE metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Li
- 801 Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources, Jinan 250014, Shandong, China E-mail: ; College of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong 64300, Sichuan, China
| | - Shanming Wei
- 801 Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources, Jinan 250014, Shandong, China E-mail:
| | - Na Liu
- Institute of Groundwater and Earth Science, Jinan University, 510632 Guangzhou, China
| | - Yalu Du
- 801 Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources, Jinan 250014, Shandong, China E-mail:
| | - Guantao Ding
- 801 Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources, Jinan 250014, Shandong, China E-mail:
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Rosell M, Palau J, Mortan SH, Caminal G, Soler A, Shouakar-Stash O, Marco-Urrea E. Dual carbon - chlorine isotope fractionation during dichloroelimination of 1,1,2-trichloroethane by an enrichment culture containing Dehalogenimonas sp. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 648:422-429. [PMID: 30121041 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated ethanes are frequent groundwater contaminants but compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA) has been scarcely applied to investigate their degradation pathways. In this study, dual carbon and chlorine isotope fractionation was used to investigate for the first time the anoxic biodegradation of 1,1,2-trichloroethane (1,1,2-TCA) using a Dehalogenimonas-containing culture. The isotopic fractionation values obtained for the biodegradation of 1,1,2-TCA were ɛC = -6.9 ± 0.4‰ and ɛCl = -2.7 ± 0.3‰. The detection of vinyl chloride (VC) as unique byproduct and a closed carbon isotopic mass balance corroborated that dichloroelimination was the degradation pathway used by this strain. Combining the values of δ13C and δ37Cl resulted in a dual element C-Cl isotope slope of Λ = 2.5 ± 0.2‰. Investigation of the apparent kinetic isotope effects (AKIEs) expected for cleavage of a CCl bond showed an important masking of the intrinsic isotope fractionation. Theoretical calculation of Λ suggested that dichloroelimination of 1,1,2-TCA was taking place via simultaneous cleavage of two CCl bonds (concerted reaction mechanism). The isotope data obtained in this study can be useful to monitor natural attenuation of 1,1,2-TCA via dichloroelimination and provide insights into the source and fate of VC in contaminated groundwaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mònica Rosell
- Grup MAiMA, Mineralogia Aplicada, Geoquímica i Geomicrobiologia, Departament de Mineralogia, Petrologia i Geologia Aplicada, Facultat de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Martí Franquès s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Palau
- Grup MAiMA, Mineralogia Aplicada, Geoquímica i Geomicrobiologia, Departament de Mineralogia, Petrologia i Geologia Aplicada, Facultat de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Martí Franquès s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), CSIC, Hydrogeology Group (UPC-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Siti Hatijah Mortan
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Biològica i Ambiental, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gloria Caminal
- Institut de Química Avançada de Catalunya (IQAC), CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Soler
- Grup MAiMA, Mineralogia Aplicada, Geoquímica i Geomicrobiologia, Departament de Mineralogia, Petrologia i Geologia Aplicada, Facultat de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Martí Franquès s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Orfan Shouakar-Stash
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Isotope Tracer Technologies Inc., Waterloo, Ontario N2 V 1Z5, Canada
| | - Ernest Marco-Urrea
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Biològica i Ambiental, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Chen G, Han J, Mu Y, Yu H, Qin L. Two-stage chromium isotope fractionation during microbial Cr(VI) reduction. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 148:10-18. [PMID: 30343194 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Revised: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Chromium isotope fractionation analysis is a promising approach for the assessment of microbial Cr(VI) reduction in groundwater. Understanding the mechanisms and other parameters that control Cr isotope fractionation factors (between the product Cr(III) and reactant Cr (VI)) in microbial Cr(VI) reduction is critical to this application. To date, such studies are very limited. Here, the influence of critical factors on observed Cr isotope fractionation during Cr(VI) reduction by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 under various conditions was investigated. The Cr(VI) concentration and Cr isotope ratio measurements were conducted on unreacted Cr(VI) remaining in solution to determine Cr isotope fractionation factors. The changes in ambient environmental conditions (e.g., pH, temperature) have limited influence on Cr isotope fractionation factors. However, as a result of Cr(VI) consumption as the experiments proceed, the change in bioavailability of Cr(VI) has a significant impact on Cr isotope fractionation factors. For example, in temperature-controlled experiments, Cr isotope fractionation showed two-stage behavior: during Stage I, the values of ε were -2.81 ± 0.19‰ and -2.60 ± 0.14‰ at 18 °C and 34 °C, respectively; during Stage II, as Cr(VI) reduction progressed, Cr isotope fractionation was significantly masked, and the ε values decreased to -0.98 ± 0.49‰ and -1.01 ± 0.11‰ at 18 °C and 34 °C, respectively. Similar two-stage isotope fractionation behaviors were observed in pH-controlled experiments (pH = 6.0 and 7.2) and in experiments with and without the addition of a competing electron acceptor (nitrate). Masking of isotope fractionation in Stage II indicated restrictions on the bioavailability of Cr(VI) and mass-transfer limitations. This study provides an explanation for the variation in Cr isotope fractionation factors during microbial Cr(VI) reduction in the environment, furthering the viability of Cr isotope ratio analysis as an approach in understanding Cr biogeochemical cycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guojun Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Juncheng Han
- CAS Key Laboratory for Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Chemistry, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Yang Mu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Chemistry, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Huimin Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Liping Qin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China; State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, University of Geosciences, Beijing, China.
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Liu N, Ding L, Li H, Zhang P, Zheng J, Weng CH. Stable carbon isotope fractionation of chlorinated ethenes by a microbial consortium containing multiple dechlorinating genes. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 261:133-141. [PMID: 29656226 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The study aimed to determine the possible contribution of specific growth conditions and community structures to variable carbon enrichment factors (Ɛ-carbon) values for the degradation of chlorinated ethenes (CEs) by a bacterial consortium with multiple dechlorinating genes. Ɛ-carbon values for trichloroethylene, cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, and vinyl chloride were -7.24% ± 0.59%, -14.6% ± 1.71%, and -21.1% ± 1.14%, respectively, during their degradation by a microbial consortium containing multiple dechlorinating genes including tceA and vcrA. The Ɛ-carbon values of all CEs were not greatly affected by changes in growth conditions and community structures, which directly or indirectly affected reductive dechlorination of CEs by this consortium. Stability analysis provided evidence that the presence of multiple dechlorinating genes within a microbial consortium had little effect on carbon isotope fractionation, as long as the genes have definite, non-overlapping functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Liu
- College of Environment and Resources, Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Longzhen Ding
- College of Environment and Resources, Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Haijun Li
- Sichuan University of Science & Engineering, Sichuan, China
| | - Pengpeng Zhang
- College of Environment and Resources, Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Jixing Zheng
- College of Environment and Resources, Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Chih-Huang Weng
- Department of Civil and Ecological Engineering, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City 84008, Taiwan.
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Buchner D, Jin B, Ebert K, Rolle M, Elsner M, Haderlein SB. Experimental Determination of Isotope Enrichment Factors - Bias from Mass Removal by Repetitive Sampling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:1527-1536. [PMID: 27995793 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b03689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Application of compound-specific stable isotope approaches often involves comparisons of isotope enrichment factors (ε). Experimental determination of ε-values is based on the Rayleigh equation, which relates the change in measured isotope ratios to the decreasing substrate fractions and is valid for closed systems. Even in well-controlled batch experiments, however, this requirement is not necessarily fulfilled, since repetitive sampling can remove a significant fraction of the analyte. For volatile compounds the need for appropriate corrections is most evident, and various methods have been proposed to account for mass removal and for volatilization into the headspace. In this study we use both synthetic and experimental data to demonstrate that the determination of ε-values according to current correction methods is prone to considerable systematic errors even in well-designed experimental setups. Application of inappropriate methods may lead to incorrect and inconsistent ε-values entailing misinterpretations regarding the processes underlying isotope fractionation. In fact, our results suggest that artifacts arising from inappropriate data evaluation might contribute to the variability of published ε-values. In response, we present novel, adequate methods to eliminate systematic errors in data evaluation. A model-based sensitivity analysis serves to reveal the most crucial experimental parameters and can be used for future experimental design to obtain correct ε-values allowing mechanistic interpretations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Buchner
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , Hölderlinstraße 12, D-72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Biao Jin
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , Hölderlinstraße 12, D-72074 Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark , Miljøvej Building 113, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Karin Ebert
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , Hölderlinstraße 12, D-72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Massimo Rolle
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , Hölderlinstraße 12, D-72074 Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark , Miljøvej Building 113, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Martin Elsner
- Institute of Groundwater Ecology, Helmholtz Zentrum München , Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Stefan B Haderlein
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , Hölderlinstraße 12, D-72074 Tübingen, Germany
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Buchner D, Behrens S, Laskov C, Haderlein SB. Resiliency of Stable Isotope Fractionation (δ(13)C and δ(37)Cl) of Trichloroethene to Bacterial Growth Physiology and Expression of Key Enzymes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:13230-13237. [PMID: 26505909 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b02918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Quantification of in situ (bio)degradation using compound-specific isotope analysis requires a known and constant isotope enrichment factor (ε). Because reported isotope enrichment factors for microbial dehalogenation of chlorinated ethenes vary considerably we studied the potential effects of metabolic adaptation to TCE respiration on isotope fractionation (δ(13)C and δ(37)Cl) using a model organism (Desulfitobacterium hafniesne Y51), which only has one reductive dehalogenase (PceA). Cells grown on TCE for the first time showed exponential growth until 10(9) cells/mL. During exponential growth, the cell-normalized amount of PceA enzyme increased steadily in the presence of TCE (up to 21 pceA transcripts per cell) but not with alternative substrates (<1 pceA transcript per cell). Cultures initially transferred or subcultivated on TCE showed very similar isotope fractionation, both for carbon (εcarbon: -8.6‰ ± 0.3‰ or -8.8‰ ± 0.2‰) and chlorine (εchlorine: -2.7‰ ± 0.3‰) with little variation (0.7‰) for the different experimental conditions. Thus, TCE isotope fractionation by D. hafniense strain Y51 was affected by neither growth phase, pceA transcription, or translation, nor by PceA content per cell, suggesting that transport limitations did not affect isotope fractionation. Previously reported variable ε values for other organohalide-respiring bacteria might thus be attributed to different expression levels of their multiple reductive dehalogenases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Buchner
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Behrens
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christine Laskov
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stefan B Haderlein
- Department of Geosciences, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen, Germany
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Martín-González L, Mortan SH, Rosell M, Parladé E, Martínez-Alonso M, Gaju N, Caminal G, Adrian L, Marco-Urrea E. Stable Carbon Isotope Fractionation During 1,2-Dichloropropane-to-Propene Transformation by an Enrichment Culture Containing Dehalogenimonas Strains and a dcpA Gene. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:8666-8674. [PMID: 26111261 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b00929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A stable enrichment culture derived from Besòs river estuary sediments stoichiometrically dechlorinated 1,2-dichloropropane (1,2-DCP) to propene. Sequential transfers in defined anaerobic medium with the inhibitor bromoethanesulfonate produced a sediment-free culture dechlorinating 1,2-DCP in the absence of methanogenesis. Application of previously published genus-specific primers targeting 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed the presence of a Dehalogenimonas strain, and no amplification was obtained with Dehalococcoides-specific primers. The partial sequence of the 16S rRNA amplicon was 100% identical with Dehalogenimonas alkenigignens strain IP3-3. Also, dcpA, a gene described to encode a corrinoid-containing 1,2-DCP reductive dehalogenase was detected. Resistance of the dehalogenating activity to vancomycin, exclusive conversion of vicinally chlorinated alkanes, and tolerance to short-term oxygen exposure is consistent with the hypothesis that a Dehalogenimonas strain is responsible for 1,2-DCP conversion in the culture. Quantitative PCR showed a positive correlation between the number of Dehalogenimonas 16S rRNA genes copies in the culture and consumption of 1,2-DCP. Compound specific isotope analysis revealed that the Dehalogenimonas-catalyzed carbon isotopic fractionation (εC(bulk)) of the 1,2-DCP-to-propene reaction was -15.0 ± 0.7‰ under both methanogenic and nonmethanogenic conditions. This study demonstrates that carbon isotope fractionation is a valuable approach for monitoring in situ 1,2-DCP reductive dechlorination by Dehalogenimonas strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Martín-González
- †Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Carrer de les Sitges s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - S Hatijah Mortan
- †Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Carrer de les Sitges s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - M Rosell
- ‡Departament de Crystal-lografia, Mineralogia i Dipòsits Minerals, Facultat de Geologia, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Martí Franquès s/n, 08028. Barcelona, Spain
| | - E Parladé
- §Departament de Genètica i Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - M Martínez-Alonso
- §Departament de Genètica i Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - N Gaju
- §Departament de Genètica i Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - G Caminal
- ∥Institut de Química Avançada de Catalunya (IQAC) CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - L Adrian
- ⊥Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstraße 15, Leipzig, Germany
| | - E Marco-Urrea
- †Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Carrer de les Sitges s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
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Renpenning J, Rapp I, Nijenhuis I. Substrate hydrophobicity and cell composition influence the extent of rate limitation and masking of isotope fractionation during microbial reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated ethenes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:4293-301. [PMID: 25734359 DOI: 10.1021/es506108j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of intracellular microscale mass transfer on microbial carbon isotope fractionation of tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichloroethene (TCE). Significantly stronger isotope fractionation was observed for crude extracts vs intact cells of Sulfurospirillum multivorans, Geobacter lovleyi, Desulfuromonas michiganensis, Desulfitobacterium hafniense strain PCE-S, and Dehalobacter restrictus. Furthermore, carbon stable isotope fractionation was stronger for microorganisms with a Gram-positive cell envelope compared to those with a Gram-negative cell envelope. Significant differences were observed between model organisms in cellular sorption capacity for PCE (S. multivorans-K(d-PCE) = 0.42-0.51 L g(-1); D. hafniense-K(d-PCE) = 0.13 L g(-1)), as well as in envelope hydrophobicity (S. multivorans 33.0° to 72.2°; D. hafniense 59.1° to 60.8°) when previously cultivated with fumarate or PCE as electron acceptor, but not for TCE. Cell envelope properties and the tetrachloroethene reductive dehalogenase (PceA-RDase) localization did not result in significant effects on observed isotope fractionation of TCE. For PCE, however, systematic masking of isotope effects as a result of microscale mass transfer limitation at microbial membranes was observed, with carbon isotope enrichment factors of -2.2‰, -1.5 to -1.6‰, and -1.0‰ (CI95% < ± 0.2‰) for no membrane, hydrophilic outer membrane, and outer + cytoplasmic membrane, respectively. Conclusively, rate-limiting mass transfer barriers were (a) the outer membrane or cell wall and (b) the cytoplasmic membrane in case of a cytoplasmic location of the RDase enzyme. Overall, our results indicate that masking of isotope fractionation is determined by (1) hydrophobicity of the degraded compound, (2) properties of the cell envelope, and (3) the localization of the reacting enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Renpenning
- †Department for Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, D-04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Insa Rapp
- †Department for Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, D-04318 Leipzig, Germany
- ‡Department of Chemistry, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstraße 2, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Ivonne Nijenhuis
- †Department for Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, D-04318 Leipzig, Germany
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