1
|
Kim HC, Lee S, Wallington TJ. Cradle-to-Gate and Use-Phase Carbon Footprint of a Commercial Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:11834-11842. [PMID: 37515579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Increased use of vehicle electrification to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the need for an accurate and comprehensive assessment of the carbon footprint of traction batteries. Unfortunately, there are few lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of commercial lithium-ion batteries available in the literature, and those that are available focus on the cradle-to-gate stage, often with little or no consideration of the use phase. To address this shortfall, we report both cradle-to-gate and use-phase GHG emissions for the 2020 Model Year Ford Explorer plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) NMC622 battery. Using primary industry data for battery design and manufacturing, cradle-to-gate emissions are estimated to be 1.38 t CO2e (101 kg CO2e/kWh), with 78% from materials and parts production and 22% from cell, module, and pack manufacturing. Using mass-induced energy consumptions of 0.6 and 1.6 kWh/(100 km 100 kg) for charge-depleting and -sustaining modes, respectively, the mass-induced use-phase emission of the battery is estimated to be 1.04 t CO2e. We show that battery emissions during the cradle-to-gate and use phases are comparable and that both phases need to be considered. A holistic and harmonized LCA approach that includes battery use is required to reduce carbon footprint uncertainties and guide future battery designs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Sunghoon Lee
- ESG Impact Team, LG Energy Solution, Seoul 07335, Republic of Korea
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Automotive Lightweight Design: Simulation Modeling of Mass-Related Consumption for Electric Vehicles. MACHINES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/machines8030051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A thorough assessment of Life-Cycle effects involved by vehicle lightweighting needs a rigorous evaluation of mass-induced consumption, on which energy and sustainability benefits during use stage directly depend. The paper proposes an analytical calculation procedure to estimate the weight-related energy consumption of pure Electric Vehicles (EVs), since existing literature leaves considerable room for improvement regarding this research area. The correlation between consumption and mass is expressed through the Energy Reduction Value (ERV) coefficient, which quantifies the specific consumption saving achievable through 100 kg mass reduction. The ERV is estimated for a number of heterogeneous case studies derived from real 2019 European market EV models and according to three drive cycles, to consider different driving behaviors. For the case studies under consideration, ERV ranges from 0.47 to 1.17 kWh/(100 km × 100 kg), with the variability mainly depending on vehicle size and driving cycle. Given the high uncertainty of mass-related consumption on car size, an analytical method is refined to estimate accurately the ERV for any real-world EV model, starting from vehicle technical features. Along with energy assessment, the research also evaluates the environmental implications of lightweight design by means of the Impact Reduction Value (IRV), which is estimated for three distinct electricity grid mixes. Finally, the ERV/IRV modeling approach is applied to a series of comparative lightweight case studies taken from the literature. Such an application demonstrates the effective utility of the work to reduce the uncertainty for all cases where no physical tests or computer-aided simulations are available.
Collapse
|
3
|
Jing R, Yuan C, Rezaei H, Qian J, Zhang Z. Assessments on emergy and greenhouse gas emissions of internal combustion engine automobiles and electric automobiles in the USA. J Environ Sci (China) 2020; 90:297-309. [PMID: 32081326 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2019.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Increasing energy consumption in the transportation sector results in challenging greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and environmental problems. This paper involved integrated assessments on GHG emissions and emergy of the life cycle for the internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric automobiles in the USA over the entire assumed fifteen-year lifetime. The hotspots of GHG emissions as well as emergy indices for the major processes of automobile life cycle within the defined system boundaries have been investigated. The potential strategies for reducing GHG emissions and emergy in the life cycle of both ICE and electric automobiles were further proposed. Based on the current results, the total GHG emissions from the life cycle of ICE automobiles are 4.48E + 07 kg CO2-e which is 320 times higher than that of the electric automobiles. The hotspot area of the GHG emissions from ICE and electric automobiles are operation phase and manufacturing process, respectively. Interesting results were observed that comparable total emergy of the ICE automobiles and electric automobiles have been calculated which were 1.54E + 17 and 2.20E + 17 sej, respectively. Analysis on emergy index evidenced a better environmental sustainability of electric automobiles than ICE automobiles over the life cycle due to its higher ESI. To the authors' knowledge, it is the first time to integrate the analysis of GHG emissions together with emergy in industrial area of automobile engineering. It is expected that the integration of emergy and GHG emissions analysis may provide a comprehensive perspective on eco-industrial sustainability of automobile engineering.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ran Jing
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Joint Institute for Environmental Research & Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland at College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Chen Yuan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland at College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Hamidreza Rezaei
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland at College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Jin Qian
- Research & Development Institute in Shenzhen & School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Joint Institute for Environmental Research & Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lewis GM, Buchanan CA, Jhaveri KD, Sullivan JL, Kelly JC, Das S, Taub AI, Keoleian GA. Green Principles for Vehicle Lightweighting. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:4063-4077. [PMID: 30892881 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A large portion of life cycle transportation impacts occur during vehicle operation, and key improvement strategies include increasing powertrain efficiency, vehicle electrification, and lightweighting vehicles by reducing their mass. The potential energy benefits of vehicle lightweighting are large, given that 29.5 EJ was used in all modes of U.S. transportation in 2016, and roughly half of the energy spent in wheeled transportation and the majority of energy spent in aircraft is used to move vehicle mass. We collect and review previous work on lightweighting, identify key parameters affecting vehicle environmental performance (e.g., vehicle mode, fuel type, material type, and recyclability), and propose a set of 10 principles, with examples, to guide environmental improvement of vehicle systems through lightweighting. These principles, based on a life cycle perspective and taken as a set, allow a wide range of stakeholders (designers, policy-makers, and vehicle manufacturers and their material and component suppliers) to evaluate the trade-offs inherent in these complex systems. This set of principles can be used to evaluate trade-offs between impact categories and to help avoid shifting of burdens to other life cycle phases in the process of improving use-phase environmental performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey M Lewis
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Cailin A Buchanan
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Michigan , 2098 HH Dow , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48019 , United States
| | - Krutarth D Jhaveri
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Michigan , 2098 HH Dow , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48019 , United States
| | - John L Sullivan
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Jarod C Kelly
- Energy Systems Division , Argonne National Laboratory , 9700 S. Cass Avenue , Argonne , Illinois 60439 , United States
| | - Sujit Das
- Energy and Transportation Sciences Division , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Alan I Taub
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Michigan , 2098 HH Dow , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48019 , United States
- Lightweight Innovations For Tomorrow , 1400 Rosa Parks Boulevard , Detroit , Michigan 48216 , United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
- Lightweight Innovations For Tomorrow , 1400 Rosa Parks Boulevard , Detroit , Michigan 48216 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Milovanoff A, Kim HC, De Kleine R, Wallington TJ, Posen ID, MacLean HL. A Dynamic Fleet Model of U.S Light-Duty Vehicle Lightweighting and Associated Greenhouse Gas Emissions from 2016 to 2050. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:2199-2208. [PMID: 30682256 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Substituting conventional materials with lightweight materials is an effective way to reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from light-duty vehicles. However, estimated GHG emission reductions of lightweighting depend on multiple factors including the vehicle powertrain technology and efficiency, lightweight material employed, and end-of-life material recovery. We developed a fleet-based life cycle model to estimate the GHG emission changes due to lightweighting the U.S. light-duty fleet from 2016 to 2050, using either high strength steel or aluminum as the lightweight material. Our model estimates that implementation of an aggressive lightweighting scenario using aluminum reduces 2016 through 2050 cumulative life cycle GHG emissions from the fleet by 2.9 Gt CO2 eq (5.6%), and annual emissions in 2050 by 11%. Lightweighting has the greatest GHG emission reduction potential when implemented in the near-term, with two times more reduction per kilometer traveled if implemented in 2016 rather than in 2030. Delaying implementation by 15 years sacrifices 72% (2.1 Gt CO2 eq) of the cumulative GHG emission mitigation potential through 2050. Lightweighting is an effective solution that could provide important near-term GHG emission reductions especially during the next 10-20 years when the fleet is dominated by conventional powertrain vehicles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Milovanoff
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - I Daniel Posen
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Heather L MacLean
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry , University of Toronto , 200 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Civancik-Uslu D, Ferrer L, Puig R, Fullana-I-Palmer P. Are functional fillers improving environmental behavior of plastics? A review on LCA studies. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 626:927-940. [PMID: 29898558 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The use of functional fillers can be advantageous in terms of cost reduction and improved properties in plastics. There are many types of fillers used in industry, organic and inorganic, with a wide application area. As a response to the growing concerns about environmental damage that plastics cause, recently fillers have started to be considered as a way to reduce it by decreasing the need for petrochemical resources. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is identified as a proper tool to evaluate potential environmental impacts of products or systems. Therefore, in this study, the literature regarding LCA of plastics with functional fillers was reviewed in order to see if the use of fillers in plastics could be environmentally helpful. It was interesting to find out that environmental impacts of functional fillers in plastics had not been studied too often, especially in the case of inorganic fillers. Therefore, a gap in the literature was identified for the future works. Results of the study showed that, although there were not many and some differences exist among the LCA studies, the use of fillers in plastics industry may help to reduce environmental emissions. In addition, how LCA methodology was applied to these materials was also investigated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Didem Civancik-Uslu
- UNESCO Chair in Life Cycle and Climate Change (ESCI-UPF), Pg. Pujades 1, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Laura Ferrer
- GCR Group, Carrer Boters s/n, Pol. Ind. Les Planes, 43717 La Bisbal Del Penedes, Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Rita Puig
- GIR, Escola d'Enginyeria d'Igualada (EEI), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC, Barcelona Tech), Pla de la Massa, 8, 08700 Igualada, Spain.
| | - Pere Fullana-I-Palmer
- UNESCO Chair in Life Cycle and Climate Change (ESCI-UPF), Pg. Pujades 1, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Hottle T, Caffrey C, McDonald J, Dodder R. Critical factors affecting life cycle assessments of material choice for vehicle mass reduction. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH. PART D, TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT 2017; 56:241-257. [PMID: 30828256 PMCID: PMC6391884 DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Troy Hottle
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC
| | - Cheryl Caffrey
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, Ann Arbor, Ml
| | - Joseph McDonald
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Rebecca Dodder
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Lightweight Design Solutions in the Automotive Field: Environmental Modelling Based on Fuel Reduction Value Applied to Diesel Turbocharged Vehicles. SUSTAINABILITY 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/su8111167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
9
|
Kim HC, Wallington TJ. Life Cycle Assessment of Vehicle Lightweighting: A Physics-Based Model To Estimate Use-Phase Fuel Consumption of Electrified Vehicles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:11226-11233. [PMID: 27533735 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Assessing the life-cycle benefits of vehicle lightweighting requires a quantitative description of mass-induced fuel consumption (MIF) and fuel reduction values (FRVs). We have extended our physics-based model of MIF and FRVs for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to electrified vehicles (EVs) including hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). We illustrate the utility of the model by calculating MIFs and FRVs for 37 EVs and 13 ICEVs. BEVs have much smaller MIF and FRVs, both in the range 0.04-0.07 Le/(100 km 100 kg), than those for ICEVs which are in the ranges 0.19-0.32 and 0.16-0.22 L/(100 km 100 kg), respectively. The MIF and FRVs for HEVs and PHEVs mostly lie between those for ICEVs and BEVs. Powertrain resizing increases the FRVs for ICEVs, HEVs and PHEVs. Lightweighting EVs is less effective in reducing greenhouse gas emissions than lightweighting ICEVs, however the benefits differ substantially for different vehicle models. The physics-based approach outlined here enables model specific assessments for ICEVs, HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs required to determine the optimal strategy for maximizing the life-cycle benefits of lightweighting the light-duty vehicle fleet.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Materials and Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials and Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kelly JC, Sullivan JL, Burnham A, Elgowainy A. Impacts of Vehicle Weight Reduction via Material Substitution on Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:12535-42. [PMID: 26393414 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This study examines the vehicle-cycle and vehicle total life-cycle impacts of substituting lightweight materials into vehicles. We determine part-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emission ratios by collecting material substitution data and evaluating that alongside known mass-based GHG ratios (using and updating Argonne National Laboratory's GREET model) associated with material pair substitutions. Several vehicle parts are lightweighted via material substitution, using substitution ratios from a U.S. Department of Energy report, to determine GHG emissions. We then examine fuel-cycle GHG reductions from lightweighting. The fuel reduction value methodology is applied using FRV estimates of 0.15-0.25, and 0.25-0.5 L/(100km·100 kg), with and without powertrain adjustments, respectively. GHG breakeven values are derived for both driving distance and material substitution ratio. While material substitution can reduce vehicle weight, it often increases vehicle-cycle GHGs. It is likely that replacing steel (the dominant vehicle material) with wrought aluminum, carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CRFP), or magnesium will increase vehicle-cycle GHGs. However, lifetime fuel economy benefits often outweigh the vehicle-cycle, resulting in a net total life-cycle GHG benefit. This is the case for steel replaced by wrought aluminum in all assumed cases, and for CFRP and magnesium except for high substitution ratio and low FRV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jarod C Kelly
- Systems Assessment Group, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory , Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - John L Sullivan
- Systems Assessment Group, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory , Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Andrew Burnham
- Systems Assessment Group, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory , Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Amgad Elgowainy
- Systems Assessment Group, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory , Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Sullivan JL, Keoleian GA. Life Cycle Assessment of Vehicle Lightweighting: Novel Mathematical Methods to Estimate Use-Phase Fuel Consumption. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:10209-10216. [PMID: 26168234 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Lightweighting is a key strategy to improve vehicle fuel economy. Assessing the life-cycle benefits of lightweighting requires a quantitative description of the use-phase fuel consumption reduction associated with mass reduction. We present novel methods of estimating mass-induced fuel consumption (MIF) and fuel reduction values (FRVs) from fuel economy and dynamometer test data in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) database. In the past, FRVs have been measured using experimental testing. We demonstrate that FRVs can be mathematically derived from coast down coefficients in the EPA vehicle test database avoiding additional testing. MIF and FRVs calculated for 83 different 2013 MY vehicles are in the ranges 0.22-0.43 and 0.15-0.26 L/(100 km 100 kg), respectively, and increase to 0.27-0.53 L/(100 km 100 kg) with powertrain resizing to retain equivalent vehicle performance. We show how use-phase fuel consumption can be estimated using MIF and FRVs in life cycle assessments (LCAs) of vehicle lightweighting from total vehicle and vehicle component perspectives with, and without, powertrain resizing. The mass-induced fuel consumption model is illustrated by estimating lifecycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission benefits from lightweighting a grille opening reinforcement component using magnesium or carbon fiber composite for 83 different vehicle models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- †Systems Analytics and Environmental Sciences Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- †Systems Analytics and Environmental Sciences Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - John L Sullivan
- ‡Board Member, Center for Sustainable Systems, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Dana Building, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1041, United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- §Center for Sustainable Systems, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Dana Building, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1041, United States
| |
Collapse
|