Role of oxygen tension on the transport and retention of two pathogenic bacteria in saturated porous media

Removal of bacterial plant pathogens in columns filled with quartz and natural sediments under anoxic and oxygenated conditions

Irrigation with surface water carrying plant pathogens poses a risk for agriculture. Managed aquifer recharge enhances fresh water availability while simultaneously it may reduce the risk of plant diseases by removal of pathogens during aquifer passage. We compared the transport of three plant pathogenic bacteria with Escherichia coli WR1 as reference strain in saturated laboratory column experiments filled with quartz sand, or sandy aquifer sediments. E. coli showed the highest removal, followed by Pectobacterium carotovorum, Dickeya solani and Ralstonia solanacearum. Bacterial and non-reactive tracer breakthrough curves were fitted with Hydrus-1D and compared with colloid filtration theory (CFT). Bacterial attachment to fine and medium aquifer sand under anoxic conditions was highest with attachment rates of max. k_att1 = 765 day^-1 and 355 day^-1, respectively. Attachment was the least to quartz sand under oxic conditions (k_att1 = 61 day^-1). In CFT, sticking efficiencies were higher in aquifer than in quartz sand but there was no differentiation between fine and medium aquifer sand. Overall removal ranged between < 6.8 log₁₀ m^-1 in quartz and up to 40 log₁₀ m^-1 in fine aquifer sand. Oxygenation of the anoxic aquifer sediments for two weeks with oxic influent water decreased the removal. The results highlight the potential of natural sand filtration to sufficiently remove plant pathogenic bacteria during aquifer storage.

Swimming Motility Reduces Deposition to Silica Surfaces

The transport and fate of bacteria in porous media is influenced by physicochemical and biological properties. This study investigated the effect of swimming motility on the attachment of cells to silica surfaces through comprehensive analysis of cell deposition in model porous media. Distinct motilities were quantified for different strains using global and cluster-based statistical analyses of microscopic images taken under no-flow condition. The wild-type, flagellated strain DJ showed strong swimming as a result of the actively swimming subpopulation whose average speed was 25.6 μm/s; the impaired swimming of strain DJ77 was attributed to the lower average speed of 17.4 μm/s in its actively swimming subpopulation; and both the nonflagellated JZ52 and chemically treated DJ cells were nonmotile. The approach and deposition of these bacterial cells were analyzed in porous media setups, including single-collector radial stagnation point flow cells (RSPF) and two-dimensional multiple-collector micromodels under well-defined hydrodynamic conditions. In RSPF experiments, both swimming and nonmotile cells moved with the flow when at a distance ≥20 μm above the collector surface. Closer to the surface, DJ cells showed both horizontal and vertical movement, limiting their contact with the surface, while chemically treated DJ cells moved with the flow to reach the surface. These results explain how wild-type swimming reduces attachment. In agreement, the deposition in micromodels was also lowest for DJ compared with those for DJ77 and JZ52. Wild-type swimming specifically reduced deposition on the upstream surfaces of the micromodel collectors. Conducted under environmentally relevant hydrodynamic conditions, the results suggest that swimming motility is an important characteristic for bacterial deposition and transport in the environment.

Transport, motility, biofilm forming potential and survival of Bacillus subtilis exposed to cold temperature and freeze-thaw

In cold climate regions, microorganisms in upper layers of soil are subject to low temperatures and repeated freeze-thaw (FT) conditions during the winter. We studied the effects of cold temperature and FT cycles on the viability and survival strategies (namely motility and biofilm formation) of the common soil bacterium and model pathogen Bacillus subtilis. We also examined the effect of FT on the transport behavior of B. subtilis at two solution ionic strengths (IS: 10 and 100 mM) in quartz sand packed columns. Finally, to study the mechanical properties of the bacteria-surface bond, a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) was used to monitor changes in bond stiffness when B. subtilis attached to a quartz substrate (model sand surface) under different environmental conditions. We observed that increasing the number of FT cycles decreased bacterial viability and that B. subtilis survived for longer time periods in higher IS solution. FT treatment decreased bacterial swimming motility and the transcription of flagellin encoding genes. Although FT exposure had no significant effect on the bacterial growth rate, it substantially decreased B. subtilis biofilm formation and correspondingly decreased the transcription of matrix production genes in higher IS solution. As demonstrated with QCM-D, the bond stiffness between B. subtilis and the quartz surface decreased after FT. Moreover, column transport studies showed higher bacterial retention onto sand grains after exposure to FT. This investigation demonstrates how temperature variations around the freezing point in upper layers of soil can influence key bacterial properties and behavior, including survival and subsequent transport.

Role of cold climate and freeze-thaw on the survival, transport, and virulence of Yersinia enterocolitica

Surface and near-surface soils in cold climate regions experience low temperature and freeze-thaw (FT) conditions in the winter. Microorganisms that are of concern to groundwater quality may have the potential to survive low temperature and FT in the soil and aqueous environments. Although there is a body of literature on the survival of pathogenic bacteria at different environmental conditions, little is known about their transport behavior in aquatic environments at low temperatures and after FT. Herein, we studied the survival, transport, and virulence of a Gram-negative bacterial pathogen, Yersinia enterocolitica, when subjected to low temperature and several FT cycles at two solution ionic strengths (10 and 100 mM) in the absence of nutrients. Our findings demonstrate that this bacterium exhibited higher retention on sand after exposure to FT. Increasing the number of FT cycles resulted in higher bacterial cell surface hydrophobicity and impaired the swimming motility and viability of the bacterium. Moreover, the transcription of flhD and fliA, the flagellin-encoding genes, and lpxR, the lipid A 3'-O-deacylase gene, was reduced in low temperature and after FT treatment while the transcription of virulence factors such as ystA, responsible for enterotoxin production, ail, attachment invasion locus gene, and rfbC, O-antigen gene, was increased. Y. enterocolitica tends to persist in soil for long periods and may become more virulent at low temperature in higher ionic strength waters in cold regions.

Inorganic geochemistry and redox dynamics in bank filtration settings

Bank filtration induces flow of surface water through a hydraulically connected aquifer by excess pumping from a production well in the aquifer. This review presents the four main geochemical processes relevant for inorganic geochemistry, with a focus on iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), during bank filtration: reduction near the bank, oxidation near the production well, carbonate dissolution, and sorption to aquifer materials. Physical and transport processes affect these geochemical processes and influence the redox state of the infiltrate. The presence of Fe and Mn in bank infiltrate is directly related to its redox status and can necessitate drinking water treatment after extraction. Long-term, in situ sequestration of Fe and Mn requires precipitation of oxide or carbonate solids, since a sorption front can breakthrough at the production well.

The impact of biofilm growth on transport of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in sand

Understanding the transport behavior, survival, and persistence of pathogens such as Escherichia coli O157:H7 in the subsurface is essential to protection of public health. In this study, the transport of E. coli O157:H7 in a two-dimensional bench-scale sand aquifer system, hereafter referred to as the sandbox, was investigated, with a focus on the impact of biofilm development on E. coli retention and survival. Biofilm growth was initiated through flushing with unsterilized groundwater and addition of glucose, nitrate, and phosphate. Retention of E. coli from an injection test in clean sand, prior to promotion of biofilm growth, was approximately 9%. Subsequent to biofilm growth, 47% of injected E. coli cells were retained under similar flow conditions. After 10 d of no flow, sterile water was flushed through the biofouled sandbox and substantial concentrations (up to 1.5 × 10(5) cells/mL) of E. coli were measured in the effluent indicating that E. coli had survived the starvation period. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that E. coli were located not only on the surface but also within the biofilm. Imposition of starvation conditions resulted in biofilm sloughing and possible mobilization of biofilm-associated E. coli.

Effect of dissolved oxygen on two bacterial pathogens examined using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, microelectrophoresis, and potentiometric titration

The effects of dissolved oxygen tension during bacterial growth and acclimation on the cell surface properties and biochemical composition of the bacterial pathogens Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Yersinia enterocolitica are characterized. Three experimental techniques are used in an effort to understand the influence of bacterial growth and acclimation conditions on cell surface charge and the composition of the bacterial cell: (i) electrophoretic mobility measurements; (ii) potentiometric titration; and (iii) ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Potentiometric titration data analyzed using chemical speciation software are related to measured electrophoretic mobilities at the pH of interest. Titration of bacterial cells is used to identify the major proton-active functional groups and the overall concentration of these cell surface ligands at the cell membrane. Analysis of titration data shows notable differences between strains and conditions, confirming the appropriateness of this tool for an overall charge characterization. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy of whole cells is used to further characterize the bacterial biochemical composition and macromolecular structures that might be involved in the development of the net surficial charge of the organisms examined. The evaluation of the integrated intensities of HPO(2)(-) and carbohydrate absorption bands in the IR spectra reveals clear differences between growth protocols. Taken together, the three techniques seem to indicate that the dissolved oxygen tension during cell growth or acclimation can noticeably influence the expression of cell surface molecules and the measurable cell surface charge, though in a strain-dependent fashion.

On the role of metabolic activity on the transport und deposition of Pseudomonas fluorescens in saturated porous media

A study was conducted to understand the role of cell concentration and metabolic state in the transport and deposition behaviour of Pseudomonas fluorescens with and without substrate addition. Column experiments using the short-pulse technique (pulse was equivalent to 0.028 pore volume) were performed in quartz sand operating under saturated conditions. For comparison, experiments with microspheres and inactive (killed) bacteria were also conducted. The effluent concentrations, the retained particle concentrations and the cell shape were determined by fluorescent microscopy. For the transport of metabolically-active P. fluorescens without substrate addition a bimodal breakthrough curve was observed, which could be explained by the different breakthrough behaviour of the rod-shaped and coccoidal cells of P. fluorescens. The 70:30 rod/coccoid ratio in the influent drastically changed during the transport and it was about 20:80 in the effluent and in the quartz sand packing. It was assumed that the active rod-shaped cells were subjected to shrinkage into coccoidal cells. The change from active rod-shaped cells to coccoidal cells could be explained by oxygen deficiency which occurs in column experiments under saturated conditions. Also the substrate addition led to two consecutive breakthrough peaks and to more bacteria being retained in the column. In general, the presence of substrate made the assumed stress effects more pronounced. In comparison to microspheres and inactive (killed) bacteria, the transport of metabolically-active bacteria with and without substrate addition is affected by differences in physiological state between rod-shaped and the formed stress-resistant coccoidal cells of P. fluorescens.