Electronic structure of metalloporphyrins. 2. Experimental electron density distribution of (meso-tetraphenylporphinato)iron(III) methoxide

Stable Iron Porphyrin Intramolecularly Coordinated by Alcoholate Anion: Synthesis and Evaluation of Axial Ligand Effect of Alcoholate on Spectroscopy and Catalytic Activity

We synthesized intramolecularly aliphatic alcoholate-coordinated iron porphyrins (1a, 1b) that retain their axial coordination in the presence of another ligand or oxidant. The electron-donative character of alcoholate was less than that of thiolate, and the coordination ability of a sixth ligand to 1a and 1b was very much lower than in the case of the thiolate-coordinated compounds. Density functional theory calculations indicated that the marked difference in coordination ability could be explained in terms of thermodynamic and steric factors. The catalytic oxidizing ability of the thiolate-coordinated compound, SR complex, was much higher than that of 1a.

Synthetic Model Complex of the Key Intermediate in Cytochrome P450 Nitric Oxide Reductase

Fungal denitrification plays a crucial role in the nitrogen cycle and contributes to the total N₂O emission from agricultural soils. Here, cytochrome P450 NO reductase (P450nor) reduces two NO to N₂O using a single heme site. Despite much research, the exact nature of the critical "Intermediate I" responsible for the key N-N coupling step in P450nor is unknown. This species likely corresponds to a Fe-NHOH-type intermediate with an unknown electronic structure. Here we report a new strategy to generate a model system for this intermediate, starting from the iron(III) methylhydroxylamide complex [Fe(3,5-Me-BAFP)(NHOMe)] (1), which was fully characterized by ¹H NMR, UV-vis, electron paramagnetic resonance, and vibrational spectroscopy (rRaman and NRVS). Our data show that 1 is a high-spin ferric complex with an N-bound hydroxylamide ligand that is strongly coordinated (Fe-N distance, 1.918 Å; Fe-NHOMe stretch, 558 cm^-1). Simple one-electron oxidation of 1 at -80 °C then cleanly generates the first model system for Intermediate I, [Fe(3,5-Me-BAFP)(NHOMe)]⁺ (1⁺). UV-vis, resonance Raman, and Mössbauer spectroscopies, in comparison to the chloro analogue [Fe(3,5-Me-BAFP)(Cl)]⁺, demonstrate that 1⁺ is best described as an Fe^III-(NHOMe)^• complex with a bound NHOMe radical. Further reactivity studies show that 1⁺ is highly reactive toward NO, a reaction that likely proceeds via N-N bond formation, following a radical-radical-type coupling mechanism. Our results therefore provide experimental evidence, for the first time, that an Fe^III-(NHOMe)^• electronic structure is indeed a reasonable electronic description for Intermediate I and that this electronic structure is advantageous for P450nor catalysis because it can greatly facilitate N-N bond formation and, ultimately, N₂O generation.

Hemozoin inhibiting 2-phenylbenzimidazoles active against malaria parasites

The 2-phenylbenzimidazole scaffold has recently been discovered to inhibit β-hematin (synthetic hemozoin) formation by high throughput screening. Here, a library of 325,728 N-4-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)aryl)benzamides was enumerated, and Bayesian statistics used to predict β-hematin and Plasmodium falciparum growth inhibition. Filtering predicted inactives and compounds with negligible aqueous solubility reduced the library to 35,124. Further narrowing to compounds with terminal aryl ring substituents only, reduced the library to 18, 83% of which were found to inhibit β-hematin formation <100 μM and 50% parasite growth <2 μM. Four compounds showed nanomolar parasite growth inhibition activities, no cross-resistance in a chloroquine resistant strain and low cytotoxicity. QSAR analysis showed a strong association of parasite growth inhibition with inhibition of β-hematin formation and the most active compound inhibited hemozoin formation in P. falciparum, with consequent increasing exchangeable heme. Pioneering use of molecular docking for this system demonstrated predictive ability and could rationalize observed structure activity trends.

Alkoxide coordination of iron(III) protoporphyrin IX by antimalarial quinoline methanols: a key interaction observed in the solid-state and solution

The quinoline methanol antimalarial drug mefloquine is a structural analogue of the Cinchona alkaloids, quinine and quinidine. We have elucidated the single crystal X-ray diffraction structure of the complexes formed between racemic erythro mefloquine and ferriprotoporphyrin IX (Fe(iii)PPIX) and show that alkoxide coordination is a key interaction in the solid-state. Mass spectrometry confirms the existence of coordination complexes of quinine, quinidine and mefloquine to Fe(iii)PPIX in acetonitrile. The length of the iron(iii)-O bond in the quinine and quinidine complexes as determined by Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy unequivocally confirms that coordination of the quinoline methanol compounds to Fe(iii)PPIX occurs in non-aqueous aprotic solution via their benzylic alkoxide functional group. UV-visible spectrophotometric titrations of the low-spin bis-pyridyl-Fe(iii)PPIX complex with each of the quinoline methanol compounds results in the displacement of a single pyridine molecule and subsequent formation of a six-coordinate pyridine-Fe(iii)PPIX-drug complex. We propose that formation of the drug-Fe(iii)PPIX coordination complexes is favoured in a non-aqueous environment, such as that found in lipid bodies or membranes in the malaria parasite, and that their existence may contribute to the mechanism of haemozoin inhibition or other toxicity effects that lead ultimately to parasite death. In either case, coordination is a key interaction to be considered in the design of novel antimalarial drug candidates.

Highly diastereoselective cyclopropanation of α-methylstyrene catalysed by a C2-symmetrical chiral iron porphyrin complex

A new chiral iron porphyrin complex performed stereoselective cyclopropanation of α-methylstyrene with outstanding TON and TOF values (up to 20 000 and 120 000 h⁻¹ respectively).

The crystal structure of halofantrine-ferriprotoporphyrin IX and the mechanism of action of arylmethanol antimalarials

The crystal structure of the complex formed between the antimalarial drug halofantrine and ferriprotoporphyrin IX (Fe(III)PPIX) has been determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction. The structure shows that halofantrine coordinates to the Fe(III) center through its alcohol functionality in addition to pi-stacking of the phenanthrene ring over the porphyrin. The length of the Fe(III)-O bond is consistent with an alkoxide and not an alcohol coordinating group. The iron porphyrin is five coordinate and monomeric. Changes in the electronic spectrum of Fe(III)PPIX upon addition of halofantrine base in acetonitrile solution are almost identical to those observed upon addition of quinidine free base in the same solvent. This suggests homologous binding. Molecular mechanics modeling of Fe(III)PPIX complexes of quinidine, quinine, 9-epiquinine and 9-epiquinidine based on this homology suggests that the antimalarially active quinidine and quinine can readily adopt conformations that permit formation of an intramolecular salt bridge between the protonated quinuclidine tertiary amino group and unprotonated heme propionate group, while the inactive epimers 9-epiquinidine and 9-epiquinine have to adopt high energy conformations in order to accommodate such salt bridge formation. We propose that salt bridge formation may interrupt formation of the hemozoin precursor dimer formed during the heme detoxification pathway and so account for the strong activity of the two active isomers.

Speciation and structure of ferriprotoporphyrin IX in aqueous solution: spectroscopic and diffusion measurements demonstrate dimerization, but not μ-oxo dimer formation

Changes in epsilon (393) (the Soret band) of aqueous ferriprotoporphyrin IX [Fe(III)PPIX] with concentration indicate that it dimerizes, but does not form higher aggregates. Diffusion measurements support this observation. The diffusion coefficient of aqueous Fe(III)PPIX is half that of the hydrated monomeric dicyano complex. Much of the apparent instability of aqueous Fe(III)PPIX solutions could be attributed to adsorption onto glass and plastic surfaces. However, epsilon (347) was found to be independent of the aggregation state of the porphyrin and was used to correct for the effects of adsorption. The UV-vis spectrum of the aqueous dimer is not consistent with that expected for a mu-oxo dimer and the (1)H NMR spectrum is characteristic of five-coordinate, high-spin Fe(III)PPIX. Magnetic susceptibility measurements using the Evans method showed that there is no antiferromagnetic coupling in the dimer. By contrast, when the mu-oxo dimer is induced in 10% aqueous pyridine, characteristic UV-vis and (1)H NMR spectra of this species are observed and the magnetic moment is consistent with strong antiferromagnetic coupling. We propose a model in which the spontaneously formed aqueous Fe(III)PPIX dimer involves noncovalent interaction of the unligated faces of two five-coordinate H(2)O/HO-Fe(III)PPIX molecules, with the axial H(2)O/OH(-) ligands directed outwards. This arrangement is consistent with the crystal structures of related five-coordinate iron(III) porphyrins and accounts for the observed pH dependence of the dimerization constant and the spectra of the monomer and dimer. Structures for the aqueous dimer are proposed on the basis of molecular dynamics/simulated annealing calculations using a force field previously developed for modeling metalloporphyrins.

Reactivity of a (μ-Oxo)(μ-hydroxo)diiron(III) Diamond Core with Water, Urea, Substituted Ureas, and Acetamide

A series of iron(III) complexes of the tetradentate ligand BPMEN (N,N'-dimethyl-N,N'-bis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine) were prepared and structurally characterized. Complex [Fe(2)(mu-O)(mu-OH)(BPMEN)(2)](ClO(4))(3) (1) contains a (mu-oxo)(mu-hydroxo)diiron(III) diamond core. Complex [Fe(BPMEN)(urea)(OEt)](ClO(4))(2) (2) is a rare example of a mononuclear non-heme iron(III) alkoxide complex. Complexes [Fe(2)(mu-O)(mu-OC(NH(2))NH)(BPMEN)(2)](ClO(4))(3) (3) and [Fe(2)(mu-O)(mu-OC(NHMe)NH)(BPMEN)(2)](ClO(4))(3) (4) feature N,O-bridging deprotonated urea ligands. The kinetics and equilibrium of the reactions of 1 with ligands L (L = water, urea, 1-methylurea, 1,1-dimethylurea, 1,3-dimethylurea, 1,1,3,3-tetramethylurea, and acetamide) in acetonitrile solutions were studied by stopped-flow UV-vis spectrophotometry, NMR, and mass spectrometry. All these ligands react with 1 in a rapid equilibrium, opening the four-membered Fe(III)(mu-O)(mu-OH)Fe(III) core and forming intermediates with a (HO)Fe(III)(mu-O)Fe(III)(L) core. The entropy and enthalpy for urea binding through oxygen are DeltaH degrees = -25 kJ mol(-1) and DeltaS degrees = -53.4 J mol(-1) K(-1) with an equilibrium constant of K(1) = 37 L mol(-1) at 25 degrees C. Addition of methyl groups on one of the urea nitrogen did not affect this reaction, but the addition of methyl groups on both nitrogens considerably decreased the value of K(1). An opening of the hydroxo bridge in the diamond core complex [Fe(2)(mu-O)(mu-OH)(BPMEN)(2)] is a rapid associative process, with activation enthalpy of about 60 kJ mol(-1) and activation entropies ranging from -25 to -43 J mol(-1) K(-1). For the incoming ligands with the -CONH(2) functionality (urea, 1-methylurea, 1,1-dimethylurea, and acetamide), a second, slow step occurs, leading to the formation of stable N,O-coordinated amidate diiron(III) species such as 3 and 4. The rate of this ring-closure reaction is controlled by the steric bulk of the incoming ligand and by the acidity of the amide group.

The effect of ligand charge on the coordination geometry of an Fe(III)ion: five- and six-coordinate Fe(III) complexes of tris(2-benzimidazolylmethyl)amine

By using the tripodal tetradentate ligand tris(2-benzimidazolylmethyl)amine (H(3)ntb), which can have several charge states depending on the number of secondary amine protons, mononuclear octahedral and dinuclear trigonal bipyramidal Fe(III) complexes were prepared. The reaction of mononuclear octahedral [Fe(III)(H(3)ntb)Cl(2)]ClO(4), 1, with 3 equiv of sec-butylamine in methanol led to the formation of mononuclear cis-dimethoxo octahedral Fe(III)(H(2)ntb)(OMe)(2), 2. One equivalent of the sec-butylamine was used to generate the monoanionic H(2)ntb(-) ligand where one of the three amines in the benzimidazolyl groups was deprotonated. The remaining 2 equiv were used to generate two methoxides that were coordinated to the octahedral Fe(III) ion in a cis fashion as demonstrated by the chlorides in 1. Reaction of 1 with excess (7 equiv) sec-butylamine generated the doubly deprotonated dianionic Hntb(2-) that stabilized the dinuclear mu-oxo Fe(III)(2)O(Hntb)(2), 3, adopting a five-coordinate trigonal bipyramidal geometry. The magnetic data for 3 are consistent with the antiferromagnetically coupled Fe(III) (S = 5/2) sites with the coupling constant J = -127 cm(-1).

C-H bond activation by a ferric methoxide complex: modeling the rate-determining step in the mechanism of lipoxygenase

Lipoxygenases are mononuclear non-heme iron enzymes that regio- and stereospecifcally convert 1,4-pentadiene subunit-containing fatty acids into alkyl peroxides. The rate-determining step is generally accepted to be hydrogen atom abstraction from the pentadiene subunit of the substrate by an active ferric hydroxide species to give a ferrous water species and an organic radical. Reported here are the synthesis and characterization of a ferric model complex, [Fe(III)(PY5)(OMe)](OTf)(2), that reacts with organic substrates in a manner similar to the proposed enzymatic mechanism. The ligand PY5 (2,6-bis(bis(2-pyridyl)methoxymethane)pyridine) was developed to simulate the histidine-dominated coordination sphere of mammalian lipoxygenases. The overall monoanionic coordination provided by the endogenous ligands of lipoxygenase confers a strong Lewis acidic character to the active ferric site with an accordingly positive reduction potential. Incorporation of ferrous iron into PY5 and subsequent oxidation yields a stable ferric methoxide species that structurally and chemically resembles the proposed enzymatic ferric hydroxide species. Reactivity with a number of hydrocarbons possessing weak C-H bonds, including a derivative of the enzymatic substrate linoleic acid, scales best with the substrates' bond dissociation energies, rather than pK(a)'s, suggesting a hydrogen atom abstraction mechanism. Thermodynamic analysis of [Fe(III)(PY5)(OMe)](OTf)(2) and the ferrous end-product [Fe(II)(PY5)(MeOH)](OTf)(2) estimates the strength of the O-H bond in the metal bound methanol in the latter to be 83.5 +/- 2.0 kcal mol(-1). The attenuation of this bond relative to free methanol is largely due to the high reduction potential of the ferric site, suggesting that the analogously high reduction potential of the ferric site in LO is what allows the enzyme to perform its unique oxidation chemistry. Comparison of [Fe(III)(PY5)(OMe)](OTf)(2) to other coordination complexes capable of hydrogen atom abstraction shows that, although a strong correlation exists between the thermodynamic driving force of reaction and the rate of reaction, other factors appear to further modulate the reactivity.

The electronic and vibrational structures of iron-oxo porphyrin with a methoxide or cysteinate axial ligand

Hybrid density functional theory (DFT) calculations for the electronic and vibrational structures of compound I species with a methoxide (MeO-) (1) or cysteinate (CysS-) (2) axial ligand are carried out in order to elucidate the natures of a methoxide-coordinating new type of compound I species (Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 71 (1998) 1343) and cysteinate-coordinating compound I species of chloroperoxidase (CPO-I) and cytochrome P450s (P450-I). DFT computations of 1 and 2 demonstrate that these "anionic" ligands are a spin carrier; 70% (80%) of a spin density resides on the O (S) atom of the axial ligand and 30% (20%) is distributed on the porphyrin ring. These results suggest that for the generation of the compound I species, one electron is removed from the iron centers and the rest of the one electron is supplied from the oxidizable axial ligands instead of the iron centers or the porphyrin ring. Vibrational analyses demonstrate that the Fe=O bond is more strongly activated in 1 compared with 2 with the stretching mode at 849 cm(-1) (878 cm(-1)) for the doublet state1a (2a) and at 814 cm(-1) (875 cm(-1)) in the quartet state 1b (2b). This reverse order of the Fe=O bond strength with respect to the axial donor strength should have relevance to the significantly oxidized character of the CysS- axial ligand. In conjunction with the recent results of the extensive resonance Raman (RR) studies, some interpretations of unsettled RR results for compound I of chloroperoxidase (CPO-I) and a synthetic compound I species [O=FeIV(TMP*+)(alcohol)] (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113 (1991) 6542) concerning the O=Fe stretching frequencies are discussed.

Iron Chemistry of a Pentadentate Ligand That Generates a Metastable Fe(III)-OOH Intermediate

In an effort to gain more insight into the factors controlling the formation of low-spin non-heme Fe(III)-peroxo intermediates in oxidation catalysis, such as activated bleomycin, we have synthesized a series of iron complexes based on the pentadentate ligand N4Py (N4Py = N,N-bis(2-pyridylmethyl)-N-(bis-2-pyridylmethyl)amine). The following complexes have been prepared: [(N4Py)Fe(II)(CH(3)CN)](ClO(4))(2) (1), [(N4Py)Fe(II)Cl](ClO(4)) (2), [(N4Py)Fe(III)OMe](ClO(4))(2) (3), and [(N4Py)(2)Fe(2)O](ClO(4))(4) (4). Complexes 1 and 2 have low- and high-spin Fe(II) centers, respectively, whereas 3 is an Fe(III) complex that undergoes a temperature-dependent spin transition. The iron centers in the oxo-bridged dimer 4 are antiferromagnetically coupled (J = -104 cm(-)(1)). Comparison of the crystal structures of 1, 3, and 4 shows that the ligand is well suited to accommodate both Fe(II) and Fe(III) in either spin state. For the high-spin Fe(III) complexes 3 and 4 the iron atoms are positioned somewhat outside of the cavity formed by the ligand, while in the case of the low-spin Fe(II) complex 1 the iron atom is retained in the middle of the cavity with approximately equal bond lengths to all nitrogen atoms from the ligand. On the basis of UV/vis and EPR observations, it is shown that 1, 3, and 4 all react with H(2)O(2) to generate the purple low-spin [(N4Py)Fe(III)OOH](2+) intermediate (6). In the case of 1, titration experiments with H(2)O(2) monitored by UV/vis and (1)H NMR reveal the formation of [(N4Py)Fe(III)OH](2+) (5) and the oxo-bridged diiron(III) dimer (4) prior to the generation of the Fe(III)-OOH species (6). Raman spectra of 6 show distinctive Raman features, particularly a nu(O-O) at 790 cm(-)(1) that is the lowest observed for any iron-peroxo species. This observation may rationalize the reactivity of low-spin Fe(III)-OOH species such as "activated bleomycin".

(Nitro)Iron(III) Porphyrins. EPR Detection of a Transient Low-Spin Iron(III) Complex and Structural Characterization of an O Atom Transfer Product

The reaction of BF(3).OEt(2) with the bis(nitro) complex of iron(III) picket-fence porphyrin, [K(18C6)(OH(2))][Fe(TpivPP)(NO(2))(2)], leads to the formation of a transient porphyrin intermediate, assigned on the basis of its rhombic low-spin EPR spectrum as the five-coordinate N-bound mono(nitro) iron(III) derivative, [Fe(TpivPP)(NO(2))]. This species is reactive and readily undergoes oxygen atom transfer to form [Fe(III)(TpivPP)(NO(3))] and [Fe(II)(TpivPP)(NO)]. The reactions have been followed by EPR and IR spectroscopy. [Fe(TpivPP)(NO(2))] has a rhombic EPR spectrum (g = 2.60, 2.35, and 1.75) in chlorobenzene and CH(2)Cl(2) and is spectroscopically distinct from the bis(nitro) starting material (g = 2.70, 2.50, and 1.57). Oxidation of the nitrosyl species to [Fe(TpivPP)(NO(3))] proceeds via an intermediate assigned as [Fe(TpivPP)(NO(2))] on the basis of its EPR spectrum. The crystal structure of one of the reaction products, [Fe(TpivPP)(NO(3))], has been determined. The nitrate ion of [Fe(TpivPP)(NO(3))] is bound to the iron(III) ion in a "symmetric" bidentate fashion within the ligand-binding pocket of the porphyrin pickets. Individual Fe-O distances are 2.123(3) and 2.226(3) Å. The dihedral angle between the plane of the nitrate ion and the closest N(p)-Fe-N(p) plane is 10.0 degrees. The Fe-N(p) bonds (and trans N(p)-Fe-N(p) angles) perpendicular and parallel to the plane of the axial ligand average to 2.060(5) Å (154.84(9) degrees ) and 2.083(3) Å (146.14(9) degrees ), respectively. Crystal data for [Fe(TpivPP)(NO(3))]: a = 23.530(2) Å, b = 10.0822(5) Å, c = 48.748(3) Å, beta = 92.145(5) degrees, monoclinic, space group I2/a, V = 11556.4(14) Å(3), Z = 8, FeN(9)O(7)C(64)H(64), 8798 observed data, R(1) = 0.0606, wR(2) = 0.1313, all observations at 127(2) K.

Cyclic Metalloporphyrin Trimers: (1)H NMR Identification of Trimeric Heterometallic (Iron(III), Gallium(III), Manganese(III)) 2-Hydroxy-5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrins and X-ray Crystal Structure of the Iron(III) 2-Hydroxy-5,10,15,20-tetra-p-tolylporphyrin Trimer(1)

Oligomerization of a mixture of monomeric iron(III) 2-hydroxy-5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrin, (2-OH-TPP)Fe(III)Cl, manganese(III) 2-hydroxy-5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrin, (2-OH-TPP)Mn(III)Cl, and gallium(III) 2-hydroxy-5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrin, (2-OH-TPP)Ga(III)Cl, complexes affords the series of heterometallic cyclic trimeric species of the general formula {[(2-O-TPP)Ga(III)](n)()[(2-O-TPP)Fe(III)](3)(-)(n)()}, {[(2-O-TPP)Ga(III)](n)()[(2-O-TPP)Mn(III)](3)(-)(n)()}, and {[(2-O-TPP)Fe(III)](n)()[(2-O-TPP)Mn(III)](3)(-)(n)()} (n = 0-3). The (1)H NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric investigations indicate that these compounds have a head-to-tail cyclic trimeric structure. In the (1)H NMR spectra the interactions between paramagnetic, weakly coupled centers are reflected by marked variations of chemical shifts and line widths of pyrrole resonances. The characteristic upfield positions of the 3-H pyrrole resonances are diagnostic for the trimeric motifs. The structure of the prototypical molecule, [(2-O-TTP)Fe(III)](3), has been determined by X-ray crystallography. [(2-O-TTP)Fe(III)](3).3n-octane crystallizes in the monoclinic space groupP2(1)/n with a = 16.729(6) Å, b = 43.671(13) Å, c = 19.564(7) Å, beta = 105.83(3) degrees, and Z = 4 at 130 K. The refinement of 1612 parameters and 5072 reflections yields R(1)( )()= 0.089 and wR(2) = 0.1848. The trimeric iron(III) complex has a head-to-tail cyclic arrangement with the pyrrolic alkoxide groups forming bridges from one macrocycle to the metal in adjacent macrocycle. The three iron(III) porphyrin subunits are not equivalent but have typical geometry for high-spin five-coordinate iron(III) porphyrin complexes. The porphyrin skeleton of [(2-O-TTP)Fe(III)](3) is expected to be representative of the structures of the homometallic and heterometallic trimeric complexes of 2-hydroxytetraarylporphyrin with M(III) ions.