Terephthalamide-Containing Analogues of TREN-Me-3,2-HOPO

Desferrithiocin: a search for clinically effective iron chelators

The successful search for orally active iron chelators to treat transfusional iron-overload diseases, e.g., thalassemia, is overviewed. The critical role of iron in nature as a redox engine is first described, as well as how primitive life forms and humans manage the metal. The problems that derive when iron homeostasis in humans is disrupted and the mechanism of the ensuing damage, uncontrolled Fenton chemistry, are discussed. The solution to the problem, chelator-mediated iron removal, is clear. Design options for the assembly of ligands that sequester and decorporate iron are reviewed, along with the shortcomings of the currently available therapeutics. The rationale for choosing desferrithiocin, a natural product iron chelator (a siderophore), as a platform for structure-activity relationship studies in the search for an orally active iron chelator is thoroughly developed. The study provides an excellent example of how to systematically reengineer a pharmacophore in order to overcome toxicological problems while maintaining iron clearing efficacy and has led to three ligands being evaluated in human clinical trials.

Synthetic approaches to mixed ligand chelators on t-butylphenol-formaldehyde oligomer (PFO) platforms

Synthetic approaches to mixed ligand chelators on readily available t-butylphenol-formaldehyde oligomer, PFO, scaffolds were examined. In a promising approach, tris and tetraphenol oligomers were selectively mono or di protected using t-butyldiphenyl silyl chloride. The utility of these protected intermediates to prepare representative mixed PFO chelators, carrying ligands such as hydroxamic acid, 3,2-hydroxypyridinones and others was then demonstrated. The introduction of the ligand tethers onto the phenolic scaffold can be done sequentially under relatively mild conditions that tolerate the presence of other sensitive ligand groups. The differential reactivity of the disilyl derivative 20b, allowed stepwise introduction of two different ligands on the internal phenolic positions. This enabled the introduction of three different ligand groups of choice onto the tetra phenol platform.

Strategies for the preparation of bifunctional gadolinium(III) chelators

The development of gadolinium chelators that can be easily and readily linked to various substrates is of primary importance for the development high relaxation efficiency and/or targeted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. Over the last 25 years a large number of bifunctional chelators have been prepared. For the most part, these compounds are based on ligands that are already used in clinically approved contrast agents. More recently, new bifunctional chelators have been reported based on complexes that show a more potent relaxation effect, faster complexation kinetics and in some cases simpler synthetic procedures. This review provides an overview of the synthetic strategies used for the preparation of bifunctional chelators for MRI applications.

New Synthetic Approach for the Incorporation of 3,2-Hydroxypyridinone (HOPO) Ligands: Synthesis of Structurally Diverse Poly HOPO Chelators

The HOPO sulfonamide reagent, 3, was prepared from commercial 2,3-dihydroxypyridine in four steps in good yields. Sulfonamide 3 readily underwent selective alkylation with dibromides in the presence of base or could be coupled to alcohols using Mitsunobu conditions. The utility of this nucleophilic HOPO reagent was demonstrated by the synthesis some tris and tetraHOPO chelators. This approach for tethering HOPO ligands is unique and flexible as shown by the preparation of HOPO/iminocarboxylic acid chelator 17.

Water-soluble 2-hydroxyisophthalamides for sensitization of lanthanide luminescence

A series of octadentate ligands featuring the 2-hydroxyisophthalamide (IAM) antenna chromophore to sensitize Tb(III) and Eu(III) luminescence has been prepared and characterized. The length of the alkyl amine scaffold that links the four IAM moieties has been varied to investigate the effect of the ligand backbone on the stability and photophysical properties of the Ln(III) complexes. The amine backbones utilized in this study are N,N,N',N'-tetrakis-(2-aminoethyl)-ethane-1,2-diamine [H(2,2)-], N,N,N',N'-tetrakis-(2-aminoethyl)-propane-1,3-diamine [H(3,2)-], and N,N,N',N'-tetrakis-(2-aminoethyl)-butane-1,4-diamine [H(4,2)-]. These ligands also incorporate methoxyethylene [MOE] groups on each of the IAM chromophores to increase their water solubility. The aqueous ligand protonation constants and Tb(III) and Eu(III) formation constants were determined from solution thermodynamic studies. The resulting values indicate that at physiological pH the Eu(III) and Tb(III) complexes of H(2,2)-IAM-MOE and H(4,2)-IAM-MOE are sufficiently stable to prevent dissociation at nanomolar concentrations. The photophysical measurements for the Tb(III) complexes gave overall quantum yield values of 0.56, 0.39, and 0.52 respectively for the complexes with H(2,2)-IAM-MOE, H(3,2)-IAM-MOE, and H(4,2)-IAM-MOE, while the corresponding Eu(III) complexes displayed significantly weaker luminescence, with quantum yield values of 0.0014, 0.0015, and 0.0058, respectively. Analysis of the steady state Eu(III) emission spectra provides insight into the solution symmetries of the complexes. The combined solubility, stability, and photophysical performance of the Tb(III) complexes in particular make them well suited to serve as the luminescent reporter group in high sensitivity time-resolved fluoroimmunoassays.

New methodology for the preparation of 3-hydroxy-2-pyridinone (3,2-HOPO) chelators and extractants. Part 2. Reactions of alcohols, phenols, and thiols with an electrophilic 3,2-HOPO reagent()

The reactions of the electrophilic iminium ester mesylate salt 1 with alcohols, phenols and thiols has been investigated. In the presence of base, thiols, phenols and thiophenol react with 1 to give the corresponding ether linked HOPO derivatives in good yields. However, the ring opening of salt 1 with alcohols could only be accomplished efficiently using a large excess of the alcohol in the presence of methanesulfonic acid at 80°C. The synthetic utility of HOPO precursor, 1, has been demonstrated by the synthesis of two polyHOPO chelators 7 and 9.

Siderophore-mediated iron transport in Bacillus subtilis and Corynebacterium glutamicum

Hexadentate bacillibactin is the siderophore of Bacillus subtilis and is structurally similar to the better known enterobactin of Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli. Although both are triscatecholamide trilactones, the structural differences of these two siderophores result in opposite metal chiralities, different affinity for ferric ion, and dissimilar iron transport behaviors. Bacillibactin was first reported as isolated from Corynebacterium glutamicum and called corynebactin. However, failure of iron-starved C. glutamicum to transport 55Fe bacillibactin and lack of required bacillibactin biosynthetic genes suggest that bacillibactin is not the siderophore produced by this organism. Iron transport mediated by siderophores in B. subtilis occurs through a transport process that is specific for the iron chelating moiety, with parallel pathways for catecholates and hydroxamates. For bacillibactin, enterobactin, and their analogs, neither chirality nor presence of an amino acid spacer affects the uptake and transport process, but alteration of the net charge and size of the molecule impedes the recognition.

Metal complexes of maltol and close analogues in medicinal inorganic chemistry

The family of hydroxypyrones and close congeners, the hydroxypyridinones, is a particularly versatile class of ligands. The most widely investigated for medicinal applications are the 3-hydroxy-4-pyrones and the 1,2- 3,2- and 3,4-hydroxypyridinones. Key features of these ligands are: a six-membered ring, with a ring N or O atom either ortho or para to a ketone group, and two ortho exocyclic oxygen atoms. Readily functionalizable, the hydroxypyrones and hydroxypyridinones allow one to achieve a range of di- and trivalent metallocomplex stabilities and can include tissue or molecular targeting features by design. Research over the past several decades has greatly expanded the array of ligands that are the subject of this critical review. Ligand applications as diverse as iron removal or supplementation, contrast agents in imaging applications, and mobilization of undesirable excess metal ions will be surveyed herein.