Electron delocalization from the fullerene attachment to the diiron core within the active-site mimics of [FeFe]hydrogenase

Insights into Triazolylidene Ligands Behaviour at a Di-Iron Site Related to [FeFe]-Hydrogenases

The behaviour of triazolylidene ligands coordinated at a {Fe₂(CO)₅(µ-dithiolate)} core related to the active site of [FeFe]-hydrogenases have been considered to determine whether such carbenes may act as redox electron-reservoirs, with innocent or non-innocent properties. A novel complex featuring a mesoionic carbene (MIC) [Fe₂(CO)₅(Pmpt)(µ-pdt)] (1; Pmpt = 1-phenyl-3-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3-triazol-5-ylidene; pdt = propanedithiolate) was synthesized and characterized by IR, ¹H, ¹³C{¹H} NMR spectroscopies, elemental analyses, X-ray diffraction, and cyclic voltammetry. Comparison with the spectroscopic characteristics of its analogue [Fe₂(CO)₅(Pmbt)(µ-pdt)] (2; Pmbt = 1-phenyl-3-methyl-4-butyl-1,2,3-triazol-5-ylidene) showed the effect of the replacement of a n-butyl by a phenyl group in the 1,2,3-triazole heterocycle. A DFT study was performed to rationalize the electronic behaviour of 1, 2 upon the transfer of two electrons and showed that such carbenes do not behave as redox ligands. With highly perfluorinated carbenes, electronic communication between the di-iron site and the triazole cycle is still limited, suggesting low redox properties of MIC ligands used in this study. Finally, although the catalytic performances of 2 towards proton reduction are weak, the protonation process after a two-electron reduction of 2 was examined by DFT and revealed that the protonation process is favoured by S-protonation but the stabilized diprotonated intermediate featuring a {Fe-H⋯H-S} interaction does not facilitate the release of H₂ and may explain low efficiency towards HER (Hydrogen Evolution Reaction).

Biomimetics of [FeFe]-hydrogenases incorporating redox-active ligands: Synthesis, redox and spectroelectrochemistry of diiron-dithiolate complexes with ferrocenyl-diphosphines as Fe4S4 surrogates

[FeFe]-ase biomimics containing a redox-active ferrocenyl diphosphine have been prepared and their ability to reduce protons and oxidise H2 studied, including 1,1’-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene (dppf) complexes Fe2(CO)4(-dppf)(-S(CH2)nS) (n = 2, edt; n...

Mechanism of Diiron Hydrogenase Complexes Controlled by Nature of Bridging Dithiolate Ligand

Bio-inorganic complexes inspired by hydrogenase enzymes are designed to catalyze the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). A series of new diiron hydrogenase mimic complexes with one or two terminal tris(4-methoxyphenyl)phosphine and different μ-bridging dithiolate ligands and show catalytic activity towards electrochemical proton reduction in the presence of weak and strong acids. A series of propane- and benzene-dithiolato-bridged complexes was synthesized, crystallized, and characterized by various spectroscopic techniques and quantum chemical calculations. Their electrochemical properties as well as the detailed reaction mechanisms of the HER are elucidated by density functional theory (DFT) methods. The nature of the μ-bridging dithiolate is critically controlling the reaction and performance of the HER of the complexes. In contrast, terminal phosphine ligands have no significant effects on redox activities and mechanism. Mono- or di-substituted propane-dithiolate complexes afford a sequential reduction (electrochemical; E) and protonation (chemical; C) mechanism (ECEC), while the μ-benzene dithiolate complexes follow a different reaction mechanism and are more efficient HER catalysts.

Electrocatalytic Behavior of Tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) and Extended Tetrathiafulvalene (exTTF) [FeFe] Hydrogenase Mimics

TTF- and exTTF-containing [(μ-S₂)Fe₂(CO)₆] complexes have been prepared by the photochemical reaction of TTF or exTTF and [(μ-S₂)Fe₂(CO)₆]. These complexes are able to interact with PAHs. In the absence of air and in acid media an electrocatalytic dihydrogen evolution reaction (HER) occurs, similarly to analogous [(μ-S₂)Fe₂(CO)₆] complexes. However, in the presence of air, the TTF and exTTF organic moieties strongly influence the electrochemistry of these systems. The reported data may be valuable in the design of [FeFe] hydrogenase mimics able to combine the HER properties of the [FeFe] cores with the unique TTF properties.

[FeFe]-Hydrogenases: maturation and reactivity of enzymatic systems and overview of biomimetic models

[FeFe]-hydrogenases recieved increasing interest in the last decades. This review summarises important findings regarding their enzymatic reactivity as well as inorganic models applied as electro- and photochemical catalysts.

Diiron azadithiolate clusters supported on carbon nanotubes for efficient electrocatalytic proton reduction

The first example of diiron azadithiolate clusters supported on carbon nanotubes (1-f-SWCNTs) was constructed via covalent attachment. This nanohybrid shows efficient electrocatalytic proton reduction with a TOF of 9444 s⁻¹ in 0.2 N aqueous H₂SO₄.

Hydrogenase Biomimetics with Redox-Active Ligands: Synthesis, Structure, and Electrocatalytic Studies on [Fe2(CO)4(κ2-dppn)(µ-edt)] (edt = Ethanedithiolate; dppn = 1,8-bis(Diphenylphosphino)Naphthalene)

Addition of the bulky redox-active diphosphine 1,8-bis(diphenylphosphino)naphthalene (dppn) to [Fe2(CO)6(µ-edt)] (1) (edt = 1,2-ethanedithiolate) affords [Fe2(CO)4(κ2-dppn)(µ-edt)] (3) as the major product, together with small amounts of a P–C bond cleavage product [Fe2(CO)5{κ1-PPh2(1-C10H7)}(µ-edt)] (2). The redox properties of 3 have been examined by cyclic voltammetry and it has been tested as a proton-reduction catalyst. It undergoes a reversible reduction at E1/2 = −2.18 V and exhibits two overlapping reversible oxidations at E1/2 = −0.08 V and E1/2 = 0.04 V. DFT calculations show that while the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) is metal-centred (Fe–Fe σ-bonding), the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) is primarily ligand-based, but also contains an antibonding Fe–Fe contribution, highlighting the redox-active nature of the diphosphine. It is readily protonated upon addition of strong acids and catalyzes the electrochemical reduction of protons at Ep = −2.00 V in the presence of CF3CO2H. The catalytic current indicates that it is one of the most efficient diiron electrocatalysts for the reduction of protons, albeit operating at quite a negative potential.

DHPA-Containing Cobalt-Based Redox Metal-Organic Cyclohelicates as Enzymatic Molecular Flasks for Light-Driven H2 Production

The supramolecular assembly of predesigned organic and inorganic building blocks is an excellent tool for constructing well-defined nanosized molecular cavities that catalyse specific chemical transformations. By incorporating a reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) mimic within the ligand backbone, a redox-active cobalt-based macrocycle was developed as a redox vehicle for the construction of an artificial photosynthesis (AP) system. The cyclohelicate can encapsulate fluorescein within its cavity for light-driven H2 evolution, with the turnover number (TON) and turnover frequency (TOF) reaching 400 and 100 moles H2 per mole redox catalyst per hour, respectively. Control experiments demonstrated that the reactions were potentially occurred within the cavity of the cyclohelicates which were inhibited in the presence of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and the redox-active NADH mimic dihydropyridine amido moieties within the ligands played an important role in photocatalytic proton reduction process.

Reduced thione ligation is preferred over neutral phosphine ligation in diiron biomimics regarding electronic functionality: a spectroscopic and computational investigation

Sulfur means superiority: effective electronic communication and buffering by sulfur ligation.

An iron-iron hydrogenase mimic with appended electron reservoir for efficient proton reduction in aqueous media

The transition from a fossil-based economy to a hydrogen-based economy requires cheap and abundant, yet stable and efficient, hydrogen production catalysts. Nature shows the potential of iron-based catalysts such as the iron-iron hydrogenase (H2ase) enzyme, which catalyzes hydrogen evolution at rates similar to platinum with low overpotential. However, existing synthetic H2ase mimics generally suffer from low efficiency and oxygen sensitivity and generally operate in organic solvents. We report on a synthetic H2ase mimic that contains a redox-active phosphole ligand as an electron reservoir, a feature that is also crucial for the working of the natural enzyme. Using a combination of (spectro)electrochemistry and time-resolved infrared spectroscopy, we elucidate the unique redox behavior of the catalyst. We find that the electron reservoir actively partakes in the reduction of protons and that its electron-rich redox states are stabilized through ligand protonation. In dilute sulfuric acid, the catalyst has a turnover frequency of 7.0 × 10(4) s(-1) at an overpotential of 0.66 V. This catalyst is tolerant to the presence of oxygen, thereby paving the way for a new generation of synthetic H2ase mimics that combine the benefits of the enzyme with synthetic versatility and improved stability.

Hydrogen generation: aromatic dithiolate-bridged metal carbonyl complexes as hydrogenase catalytic site models

The design, syntheses and characteristics of metal carbonyl complexes with aromatic dithiolate linkers reported as bioinspired hydrogenase catalytic site models are described and reviewed. Among these the complexes capable of hydrogen generation have been discussed in detail. Comparisons have been made with carbonyl complexes having alkyl dithiolates as linkers between metal centers.

Production of hydrogen by electrocatalysis: making the H–H bond by combining protons and hydrides

Electrocatalytic production of hydrogen by nickel complexes is reviewed, with an emphasis on heterocoupling of protons and hydrides.

Towards [NiFe]-hydrogenase biomimetic models that couple H2 binding with functionally relevant intramolecular electron transfers: a quantum chemical study

[FeFe]- and [NiFe]-hydrogenases are dihydrogen-evolving metalloenzymes that share striking structural and functional similarities, despite being phylogenetically unrelated. Most notably, they are able to combine substrate binding and redox functionalities, which has important bearings on their efficiency. Model complexes of [FeFe]-hydrogenases that are able to couple H2 binding with a substrate-dependent intramolecular electron transfer promoting dihydrogen activation were recently shown to reproduce the complex redox chemistry of the all-iron enzyme. Notably, coupling of H2 binding and intramolecular redox events was proposed to have a key role also in [NiFe]-hydrogenases, but this feature is not reproduced in currently available nickel-iron biomimetic compounds. In the present study, we exploit dedicated density functional theory approaches to show that H2 binding and activation on a NiFe core can be favored by the installment of conveniently substituted isocyanoferrocenes, thanks to their ability to undergo intramolecular reduction upon substrate binding. Our results support the concept that a unified view on hydrogenase chemistry is a key element to direct future efforts in the modeling of microbial H2 metabolism.

H2 binding and splitting on a new-generation [FeFe]-hydrogenase model featuring a redox-active decamethylferrocenyl phosphine ligand: a theoretical investigation

[FeFe]-hydrogenases are dihydrogen-evolving metalloenzymes that are able to combine substrate binding and redox functionalities, a feature that has important bearing on their efficiency. New-generation bioinspired systems such as Fe(2)[(SCH(2))(2)NBn](CO)(3)(Cp*Fe(C(5)Me(4)CH(2)PEt(2)))(dppv) were shown to mimic H(2) oxidation and splitting processes performed by the [FeFe]-hydrogenase/ferredoxin system, and key mechanistic aspects of such reaction are theoretically investigated in the present contribution. We found that H(2) binding and heterolytic cleavage take place concomitantly on DFT models of the synthetic catalyst, due to a substrate-dependent intramolecular redox process that promotes dihydrogen activation. Therefore, formation of an iron-dihydrogen complex as a reaction intermediate is excluded in the biomimetic system, at variance with the case of the enzyme. H(2) uptake at the synthetic system also requires an energetically disfavored isomerization of the amine group acting as a base during splitting. A possible strategy to stabilize the conformation competent for H(2) binding is proposed, along with an analysis of the reactivity of a triiron complex in which di(thiomethyl)amine--the chelating group naturally occurring in [FeFe]-hydrogenases--substitutes the benzyl-containing dithiolate ligand.