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Singh M, Vaishali, Kumar R, Singh V. Catalyst‐Free and Metal‐Free Approach towards Synthesis of Amide‐ and Thioamide‐Linked β‐Carboline‐Pyridine Conjugates and Estimation of Their Photophysical Properties. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202001149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manpreet Singh
- Department of ChemistryDr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology (NIT) Jalandhar 144011 Punjab India
| | - Vaishali
- Department of ChemistryDr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology (NIT) Jalandhar 144011 Punjab India
| | - Rakesh Kumar
- Department of ChemistryDr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology (NIT) Jalandhar 144011 Punjab India
| | - Virender Singh
- Department of ChemistryDr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology (NIT) Jalandhar 144011 Punjab India
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2
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Mede T, Jäger M, Schubert US. "Chemistry-on-the-complex": functional Ru II polypyridyl-type sensitizers as divergent building blocks. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:7577-7627. [PMID: 30246196 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00096d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ruthenium polypyridyl type complexes are potent photoactive compounds, and have found - among others - a broad range of important applications in the fields of biomedical diagnosis and phototherapy, energy conversion schemes such as dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and molecular assemblies for tailored photo-initiated processes. In this regard, the linkage of RuII polypyridyl-type complexes with specific functional moieties is highly desirable to enhance their inherent photophysical properties, e.g., with a targeting function to achieve cell selectivity, or with a dye or redox-active subunits for energy- and electron-transfer. However, the classical approach of performing ligand syntheses first and the formation of Ru complexes in the last steps imposes synthetic limitations with regard to tolerating functional groups or moieties as well as requiring lengthy convergent routes. Alternatively, the diversification of Ru complexes after coordination (termed "chemistry-on-the-complex") provides an elegant complementary approach. In addition to the Click chemistry concept, the rapidly developing synthesis and purification methodologies permit the preparation of Ru conjugates via amidation, alkylation and cross-coupling reactions. In this regard, recent developments in chromatography shifted the limits of purification, e.g., by using new commercialized surface-modified silica gels and automated instrumentation. This review provides detailed insights into applying the "chemistry-on-the-complex" concept, which is believed to stimulate the modular preparation of unpreceded molecular assemblies as well as functional materials based on Ru-based building blocks, including combinatorial approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Mede
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstraße 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.
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3
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Leem G, Sherman BD, Schanze KS. Polymer-based chromophore-catalyst assemblies for solar energy conversion. NANO CONVERGENCE 2017; 4:37. [PMID: 29299399 PMCID: PMC5740205 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-017-0132-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of polymer-based assemblies for light harvesting has been motivated by the multi-chromophore antennas that play a role in natural photosynthesis for the potential use in solar conversion technologies. This review describes a general strategy for using polymer-based chromophore-catalyst assemblies for solar-driven water oxidation at a photoanode in a dye-sensitized photoelectrochemical cell (DSPEC). This report begins with a summary of the synthetic methods and fundamental photophysical studies of light harvesting polychormophores in solution which show these materials can transport excited state energy to an acceptor where charge-separation can occur. In addition, studies describing light harvesting polychromophores containing an anchoring moiety (ionic carboxylate) for covalent bounding to wide band gap mesoporous semiconductor surfaces are summarized to understand the photophysical mechanisms of directional energy flow at the interface. Finally, the performance of polychromophore/catalyst assembly-based photoanodes capable of light-driven water splitting to oxygen and hydrogen in a DSPEC are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyu Leem
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249 USA
| | - Benjamin D. Sherman
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129 USA
| | - Kirk S. Schanze
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249 USA
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4
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Chen Z, Grumstrup EM, Gilligan AT, Papanikolas JM, Schanze KS. Light-Harvesting Polymers: Ultrafast Energy Transfer in Polystyrene-Based Arrays of π-Conjugated Chromophores. J Phys Chem B 2013; 118:372-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jp411565p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo Chen
- Department
of Chemistry and Center for Macromolecular Science and Engineering, University of Florida, P.O. Box 117200, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, United States
| | - Erik M. Grumstrup
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Alexander T. Gilligan
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - John M. Papanikolas
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Kirk S. Schanze
- Department
of Chemistry and Center for Macromolecular Science and Engineering, University of Florida, P.O. Box 117200, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, United States
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5
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Huckaba AJ, Hollis TK, Reilly SW. Homobimetallic Rhodium NHC Complexes as Versatile Catalysts for Hydrosilylation of a Multitude of Substrates in the Presence of Ambient Air. Organometallics 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/om400452q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Aron J. Huckaba
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - T. Keith Hollis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Sean W. Reilly
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
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6
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Tefashe UM, Metera KL, Sleiman HF, Mauzeroll J. Electrogenerated chemiluminescence of iridium-containing ROMP block copolymer and self-assembled micelles. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2013; 29:12866-12873. [PMID: 24047129 DOI: 10.1021/la402518v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The electrochemical properties and electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL) of an Ir(ppy)2(bpy)(+)-containing ROMP monomer, block copolymer (containing Ir(ppy)2(bpy)(+) complexes, PEG chains, and butyl moieties), and self-assembled micelles were investigated. Following polymerization of the iridium complex, we observed multiple oxidation peaks for the block copolymer in cyclic voltammograms (CV) and differential pulse voltammograms (DPV), suggesting the presence of multiple environments for the iridium complexes along the polymer backbone. The ECL signals from monomer 1 and polymer 2 were reproducible over continuous CV cycles and stable over prolonged potential biases, demonstrating their robustness toward ECL-based detection. Comparison of the ECL signal of the block copolymer, containing multiple iridium complexes attached to the backbone, and the monomeric complex showed enhanced signals for the polymer. In fact, formation and reopening of the self-assembled micelles allowed recovery of the polymer and near complete retention of its original ECL intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ushula M Tefashe
- Laboratory for Electrochemical Reactive Imaging and Detection of Biological Systems, Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC, Canada H3A 0B8
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7
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Fang Z, Ito A, Keinan S, Chen Z, Watson Z, Rochette J, Kanai Y, Taylor D, Schanze KS, Meyer TJ. Atom transfer radical polymerization preparation and photophysical properties of polypyridylruthenium derivatized polystyrenes. Inorg Chem 2013; 52:8511-20. [PMID: 23859706 DOI: 10.1021/ic400520m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
A ruthenium containing polymer featuring a short carbonyl-amino-methylene linker has been prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The polymer was derived from ATRP of the N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) derivative of p-vinylbenzoic acid, followed by an amide coupling reaction of the NHS-polystyrene with Ru(II) complexes derivatized with aminomethyl groups (i.e., [Ru(bpy)2(CH3-bpy-CH2NH2)](2+) where bpy is 2,2'-bipyridine, and CH3-bpy-CH2NH2 is 4-methyl-4'-aminomethyl-2,2'-bipyridine). The Ru-functionalized polymer structure was confirmed by using nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopy, and the results suggest that a high loading ratio of polypyridylruthenium chromophores on the polystyrene backbone was achieved. The photophysical properties of the polymer were characterized in solution and in rigid ethylene glycol glasses. In solution, emission quantum yield and lifetime studies reveal that the polymer's metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) excited states are quenched relative to a model Ru complex chromophore. In rigid media, the MLCT-ground state band gap and lifetime are both increased relative to solution with time-resolved emission measurements revealing fast energy transfer hopping within the polymer. Molecular dynamics studies of the polymer synthesized here as well as similar model systems with various spatial arrangements of the pendant Ru complex chromophores suggest that the carbonyl-amino-methylene linker probed in our target polymer provides shorter Ru-Ru nearest-neighbor distances leading to an increased Ru*-Ru energy hopping rate, compared to those with longer linkers in counterpart polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Fang
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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8
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Abstract
In 1974, the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) excited state,
[Ru(bpy)3]2+*, was shown to undergo electron transfer
quenching by methylviologen dication (MV2+), inspiring a new approach
to artificial photosynthesis based on molecules, molecular-level phenomena, and
a “modular approach”. In the intervening years, application of synthesis,
excited-state measurements, and theory to [Ru(bpy)3]2+*
and its relatives has had an outsized impact on photochemistry and photophysics.
They have provided a basis for exploring the energy gap law for nonradiative
decay and the role of molecular vibrations and solvent and medium effects on
excited-state properties. Much has been learned about light absorption,
excited-state electronic and molecular structure, and excited-state dynamics on
timescales from femtoseconds to milliseconds. Excited-state properties and
reactivity have been exploited in the investigation of electron and energy
transfer in solution, in molecular assemblies, and in derivatized polymers and
oligoprolines. An integrated, hybrid approach to solar fuels, based on
dye-sensitized photoelectrosynthesis cells (DSPECs), has emerged and is being
actively investigated.
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9
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Breul AM, Hager MD, Schubert US. Fluorescent monomers as building blocks for dye labeled polymers: synthesis and application in energy conversion, biolabeling and sensors. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 42:5366-407. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cs35478d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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10
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Breul AM, Pietsch C, Menzel R, Schäfer J, Teichler A, Hager MD, Popp J, Dietzek B, Beckert R, Schubert US. Blue emitting side-chain pendant 4-hydroxy-1,3-thiazoles in polystyrenes synthesized by RAFT polymerization. Eur Polym J 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2012.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Wilger DJ, Bettis SE, Materese CK, Minakova M, Papoian GA, Papanikolas JM, Waters ML. Tunable Energy Transfer Rates via Control of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Structure of a Coiled Coil Peptide Scaffold. Inorg Chem 2012; 51:11324-38. [DOI: 10.1021/ic300669t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dale J. Wilger
- Department
of Chemistry, CB
3290, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Stephanie E. Bettis
- Department
of Chemistry, CB
3290, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Christopher K. Materese
- Department
of Chemistry, CB
3290, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Maria Minakova
- Department
of Chemistry, CB
3290, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Garegin A. Papoian
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College
Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - John M. Papanikolas
- Department
of Chemistry, CB
3290, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Marcey L. Waters
- Department
of Chemistry, CB
3290, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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12
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Sun Y, Chen Z, Puodziukynaite E, Jenkins DM, Reynolds JR, Schanze KS. Light Harvesting Arrays of Polypyridine Ruthenium(II) Chromophores Prepared by Reversible Addition–Fragmentation Chain Transfer Polymerization. Macromolecules 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/ma202804u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yali Sun
- Department of Chemistry and Center
for Macromolecular
Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Center
for Macromolecular
Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Egle Puodziukynaite
- Department of Chemistry and Center
for Macromolecular
Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Dustin M. Jenkins
- Department of Chemistry and Center
for Macromolecular
Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - John R. Reynolds
- Department of Chemistry and Center
for Macromolecular
Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Kirk S. Schanze
- Department of Chemistry and Center
for Macromolecular
Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
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13
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Happ B, Winter A, Hager MD, Schubert US. Photogenerated avenues in macromolecules containing Re(i), Ru(ii), Os(ii), and Ir(iii) metal complexes of pyridine-based ligands. Chem Soc Rev 2012; 41:2222-55. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cs15154a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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14
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Menzel R, Breul A, Pietsch C, Schäfer J, Friebe C, Täuscher E, Weiß D, Dietzek B, Popp J, Beckert R, Schubert US. Blue-Emitting Polymers Based on 4-Hydroxythiazoles Incorporated in a Methacrylate Backbone. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201000752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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15
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Yamamoto Y, Tamaki Y, Yui T, Koike K, Ishitani O. New Light-Harvesting Molecular Systems Constructed with a Ru(II) Complex and a Linear-Shaped Re(I) Oligomer. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:11743-52. [DOI: 10.1021/ja104601b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Youhei Yamamoto
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, and National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8569, Japan
| | - Yusuke Tamaki
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, and National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8569, Japan
| | - Tatsuto Yui
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, and National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8569, Japan
| | - Kazuhide Koike
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, and National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8569, Japan
| | - Osamu Ishitani
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, and National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8569, Japan
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16
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Lu Y. Preparation of novel polypyridyl ruthenium complex polymers with high sensitivity for electrogenerated chemiluminescence via copolymerization. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2010; 9:392-7. [DOI: 10.1039/b9pp00191c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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17
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Happ B, Friebe C, Winter A, Hager MD, Schubert US. Click chemistry meets polymerization: Controlled incorporation of an easily accessible ruthenium(II) complex into a PMMA backbone via RAFT copolymerization. Eur Polym J 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2009.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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18
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Yamamoto Y, Sawa S, Funada Y, Morimoto T, Falkenström M, Miyasaka H, Shishido S, Ozeki T, Koike K, Ishitani O. Systematic Synthesis, Isolation, and Photophysical Properties of Linear-Shaped Re(I) Oligomers and Polymers with 2−20 Units. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:14659-74. [DOI: 10.1021/ja8044579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Youhei Yamamoto
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Shuhei Sawa
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Yusuke Funada
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Tatsuki Morimoto
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Magnus Falkenström
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Hiroshi Miyasaka
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Sayaka Shishido
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Tomoji Ozeki
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Kazuhide Koike
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
| | - Osamu Ishitani
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-E1-9 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan, SORST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Japan, Division of Frontier Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and Center for Quantum Science and Technology under Extreme Conditions, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan, and National Institute of Advanced
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19
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Abstract
Energy is the most important issue of the 21st century. About 85% of our energy comes from fossil fuels, a finite resource unevenly distributed beneath the Earth's surface. Reserves of fossil fuels are progressively decreasing, and their continued use produces harmful effects such as pollution that threatens human health and greenhouse gases associated with global warming. Prompt global action to solve the energy crisis is therefore needed. To pursue such an action, we are urged to save energy and to use energy in more efficient ways, but we are also forced to find alternative energy sources, the most convenient of which is solar energy for several reasons. The sun continuously provides the Earth with a huge amount of energy, fairly distributed all over the world. Its enormous potential as a clean, abundant, and economical energy source, however, cannot be exploited unless it is converted into useful forms of energy. This Review starts with a brief description of the mechanism at the basis of the natural photosynthesis and, then, reports the results obtained so far in the field of photochemical conversion of solar energy. The "grand challenge" for chemists is to find a convenient means for artificial conversion of solar energy into fuels. If chemists succeed to create an artificial photosynthetic process, "... life and civilization will continue as long as the sun shines!", as the Italian scientist Giacomo Ciamician forecast almost one hundred years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Balzani
- Dipartimento di Chimica "G. Ciamician", Università di Bologna, Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna, Italy.
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20
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Marin V, Holder E, Hoogenboom R, Schubert US. Functional ruthenium(II)- and iridium(III)-containing polymers for potential electro-optical applications. Chem Soc Rev 2006; 36:618-35. [PMID: 17387410 DOI: 10.1039/b610016c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The need for novel materials with luminescent properties and advanced processing features requires reliable and reproducible synthetic routes for the design of suitable materials, such as e.g. polypyridyl ruthenium(II) and iridium(III)-containing polymers. The most popular ligand for those purposes is the 4,4'-functionalized bipyridine unit. Therefore, several synthetic strategies for the derivatization of the 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine are highlighted, and in particular functionalities, which enable further covalent linkage to polymeric structures, are discussed in this critical review. Subsequently, the different synthetic strategies for the preparation of polymeric metal-complexes are described, either starting from small functionalized complexes (later covalently attached to the polymer), or from macroligands (subsequently coordinated to the metal ions). The designed materials reveal good processing properties using spin coating and inkjet printing, as well as beneficial electro-optical properties for potential thin functional film applications, such as light-emitting electrochemical cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Marin
- Laboratory of Macromolecular Chemistry and Nanoscience, Eindhoven University of Technology and Dutch Polymer Institute, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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21
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Wolcan E, Alessandrini JL, Féliz MR. On the Quenching of MLCTRe→bpy Luminescence by Cu(II) Species in Re(I) Polymer Micelles. J Phys Chem B 2005; 109:22890-8. [PMID: 16853982 DOI: 10.1021/jp053758j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) studies on acetonitrile solutions of the polymer {[(vpy)2-vpyRe(CO)3bpy] CF3SO3}200 demonstrated that the Re(I) polymer molecules aggregate to form spherical micelles of radius R = 156 nm. Coordination of Cu(II) species to the Re (I) polymer causes a decrease in the micelle radius and a distortion from the spherical shape. Besides, the coordination of Cu(II) species to the {[(vpy)2-vpyRe(CO)3bpy] CF3SO3}200 polymer produces the quenching of the metal to ligand charge transfer (MLCT) excited state by energy transfer processes that are more efficient than those in the quenching of the monomer pyRe(CO)3bpy+ luminescence by Cu(II). Moreover, the kinetics of the quenching by Cu(II) do not follow a Stern-Volmer behavior. Conversely, the quenching of the MLCT luminescence of the Re(I) polymer by the sacrificial electron donor 2,2',2' '-nitrilotriethanol, TEOA, follows a Stern-Volmer kinetics. A comparison is made between the quenching by CuX2 (X = Cl or CF3SO3) and TEOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezequiel Wolcan
- INIFTA, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, (1900) La Plata, República Argentina.
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22
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Huynh MHV, Dattelbaum DM, Meyer TJ. Exited state electron and energy transfer in molecular assemblies. Coord Chem Rev 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2004.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Farah AA, Pietro WJ. Telechelic poly(ε-caprolactones) with tethered mixed ligand ruthenium(II) chromophores. CAN J CHEM 2004. [DOI: 10.1139/v03-215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Well-characterized templates of polymer-forming ligands and their ruthenium tris(α,α′-diimine) initiators were utilized to divergently ring open an ε-caprolactone monomer. The same polymers were also obtained through the synthesis of quinoline and bipyridine diimine ligands incorporating poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) chains. These polymers contain vacant molecular recognition sites, enabling subsequent chelation of these macroligands to metal precursors. Both methods provided telechelic (ε-caprolactone) ruthenium(II)-centered polyesters of various hierarchy. Solution properties and thermal behaviour of such polyesters are described.Key words: redox polymers, poly(ε-caprolactone), telechelics, metalpolymer complexes, macroligands, ring-opening polymerization (ROP).
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Mastrorilli P, Nobile CF. Supported catalysts from polymerizable transition metal complexes. Coord Chem Rev 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2004.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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25
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Wolcan E, Féliz MR. Temperature and medium effects on the photophysical properties of –Re(CO)3(2,2′-bipyridine) pendant chromophores coordinated to a poly(4-vinylpyridine) backbone. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2003. [DOI: 10.1039/b212034h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Serin J, Schultze X, Adronov A, Fréchet JMJ. Synthesis and Study of the Absorption and Luminescence Properties of Polymers Containing Ru(BpyMe2)32+ Chromophores and Coumarin Laser Dyes. Macromolecules 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/ma020265t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason Serin
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, 718 Latimer Hall, Berkeley, California 94720-1460; and Department of Chemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4M1
| | - Xavier Schultze
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, 718 Latimer Hall, Berkeley, California 94720-1460; and Department of Chemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4M1
| | - Alex Adronov
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, 718 Latimer Hall, Berkeley, California 94720-1460; and Department of Chemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4M1
| | - Jean M. J. Fréchet
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, 718 Latimer Hall, Berkeley, California 94720-1460; and Department of Chemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4M1
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Shaw GB, Papanikolas JM. Triplet−Triplet Annihilation of Excited States of Polypyridyl Ru(II) Complexes Bound to Polystyrene. J Phys Chem B 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/jp0145006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- George B. Shaw
- Department of Chemistry, Venable and Kenan Laboratories, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290
| | - John M. Papanikolas
- Department of Chemistry, Venable and Kenan Laboratories, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290
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Fleming CN, Maxwell KA, DeSimone JM, Meyer TJ, Papanikolas JM. Ultrafast excited-state energy migration dynamics in an efficient light-harvesting antenna polymer based on Ru(II) and Os(II) polypyridyl complexes. J Am Chem Soc 2001; 123:10336-47. [PMID: 11603984 DOI: 10.1021/ja016304i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A detailed study of the excited state energy migration dynamics that take place within an assembly of Ru(II) and Os(II) polypyridyl complexes linked together through a polymer backbone is presented. The energy migration process is initiated by the photoexcitation of the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transition in one of the Ru(II) complexes and terminated by energy transfer to a lower energy Os(II) trap. Energy transfer sensitization of Os(II) can occur in a single step if the excited state is formed adjacent to a trap, or after a series of hops between isoenergetic rutheniums prior to reaching a trap. The dynamics of the energy transfer process are followed by monitoring the growth of Os(II) luminescence at 780 nm. The kinetics of the growth are complex and can be fit by a sum of two exponentials. This kinetic complexity arises both from the presence of a distribution of donor-acceptor distances and the variety of time scales by which Os(II) can be formed. We have augmented the time-resolved experiments with Monte Carlo simulations, which provide insight into the polymer array's structure and at the same time form the basis of a molecular-level description of the energy migration dynamics. The simulations indicate that the most probable Ru-->Os energy transfer time is approximately 400 ps while the time scale for Ru-->Ru hopping is approximately 1-4 ns. The time scale for Ru-->Ru hopping relative to its natural lifetime (1000 ns) suggests that this polymer system could be extended to considerably longer dimensions without an appreciable loss in its overall efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- C N Fleming
- Department of Chemistry, Venable and Kenan Laboratories, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-3290, USA
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Laguitton-Pasquier H, Martre A, Deronzier A. Photophysical Properties of Soluble Polypyrrole−Polypyridyl−Ruthenium(II) Complexes. J Phys Chem B 2001. [DOI: 10.1021/jp002188e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Laguitton-Pasquier
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Organique et de Photochimie Redox, UMR CNRS 5630, Université Joseph Fourier Grenoble 1, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble CEDEX 9, France
| | - Agnès Martre
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Organique et de Photochimie Redox, UMR CNRS 5630, Université Joseph Fourier Grenoble 1, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble CEDEX 9, France
| | - Alain Deronzier
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Organique et de Photochimie Redox, UMR CNRS 5630, Université Joseph Fourier Grenoble 1, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble CEDEX 9, France
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Hartshorn CM, Maxwell KA, White PS, DeSimone JM, Meyer TJ. Separation of positional isomers of oxidation catalyst precursors. Inorg Chem 2001; 40:601-6. [PMID: 11225099 DOI: 10.1021/ic9911724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A series of polypyridyl ruthenium complexes of the general formula [Ru(tpy)(bpy')Cl]+ where tpy is 2,2':6',2"-terpyridine and bpy' is 4-carboxy-4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyridine (4-CO2H-4'-Mebpy), a proline derviative (4-CO-Pra-(Boc)(OMe)-4'-Mebpy), or 4-((diethoxyphosphinyl)methyl)-4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyridine (4-CH2PO3Et2-4'-Mebpy) are prepared. For each complex, two isomers exist, and these are separated chromatographically. The structure of the hexafluorophosphate salt of cis-[Ru(tpy)(4-CO2H-4'-Mebpy)Cl]+, cis-1, is determined by X-ray crystallography. The salt crystallizes in the monoclinic space group Cc with a = 12.4778(6) A, b = 12.6086(6) A, c = 20.1215(9) A, beta = 107.08200(1) degrees, Z = 4, R = 0.058, and Rw = 0.072. The structures of the remaining complexes are assigned by 1H NMR comparisons with cis-1. The complexes are potentially important precursors for the incorporation of RuIV=O2+ oxidants into polymers or peptides or for their adsorption onto oxide surfaces. Preliminary electrochemical results for the isomers of [Ru(tpy)(4-CH2PO3H2-4'-Mebpy)(H2O)]2+, 4, adsorbed on ITO (In2O3:Sn) surfaces add support to a recently proposed electron-transfer mechanism involving cross-surface proton-coupled electron transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Hartshorn
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
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32
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Kaes C, Katz A, Hosseini MW. Bipyridine: the most widely used ligand. A review of molecules comprising at least two 2,2'-bipyridine units. Chem Rev 2000; 100:3553-90. [PMID: 11749322 DOI: 10.1021/cr990376z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 851] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C Kaes
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination Organique, Institut Le Bel, Université Louis Pasteur, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
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Choi CS, Mishra L, Mutai T, Araki K. [Ru(bpy)2(dppz-NH2)]2+Complex (dppz-NH2: 7-Amino-dipyrido[3,2-a: 2′,3′-c]phenazine) as a Useful Photosensitizing Unit for the Construction of Photoinduced Energy Transfer Systems. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2000. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.73.2051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Sykora M, Maxwell KA, DeSimone JM, Meyer TJ. Mimicking the antenna-electron transfer properties of photosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:7687-91. [PMID: 10884400 PMCID: PMC16604 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.97.14.7687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A molecular assembly based on derivatized polystyrene is described, which mimics both the light-harvesting and energy-conversion steps of photosynthesis. The system is unique in that the two key parts of a photosynthetic system are incorporated in a functional assembly constructed from polypyridine complexes of Ru(II). This system is truly artificial, as none of the components used in construction of the assembly are present in a natural photosynthetic system. Quantitative evaluation of the energy and electron transfer dynamics after transient irradiation by visible light offers important insights into the mechanisms of energy transport and electron transfer that lead to photosynthetic light-to-chemical energy conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sykora
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290
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Smith GD, Maxwell KA, DeSimone JM, Meyer TJ, Palmer RA. Step-scan FTIR time-resolved spectroscopy study of excited-state dipole orientation in soluble metallopolymers. Inorg Chem 2000; 39:893-8. [PMID: 12526366 DOI: 10.1021/ic990819h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Step-scan FTIR time-resolved spectroscopy (S2FTIR TRS) in acetonitrile-d3 has been used to probe the acceptor ligand in metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) excited states of amide-substituted polypyridyl complexes of RuII and in analogues appended to polystyrene. On the basis of ground-to-excited state shifts in v(C = O) of -31 cm-1 for the amide group in [RuII(bpy)2(bpyCONHEt')]2+ (bpyCONHEt' = 4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyridine-4-carboxamide-Et'; Et' = -CH2CH2BzCH2CH3) (1) and in the derivatized polystyrene abbreviated [PS-[CH2-CH2NHCObpy-RuII(bpy)2]20]40+ (3), the excited-state dipole is directed toward the amide-containing pyridyl group in the polymer side chain. Smaller shifts in v(C = O) of -17 cm-1 in [RuII(4,4'-(CONEt2)2bpy)2-(bpyCONHEt')]2+ (2) and in the derivatized polystyrene abbreviated [PS-[CH2CH2NHCObpy-RuII(4,4'-(CONEt2)2bpy)2]20]40+ (4) indicate that the excited-state dipole is directed toward one of the diamide bpy ligands. The nearly identical results for 1 and 3 and for 2 and 4 show that the molecular and electronic structures of the monomer excited states are largely retained in the polymer samples. These conclusions about dipole orientation in the polymers are potentially of importance in understanding intrastrand energy transfer dynamics. The excited-state dipole in 3 is oriented in the direction of the covalent link to the polymer backbone, and toward nearest neighbors. In 4, it is oriented away from the backbone.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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Maxwell KA, Sykora M, DeSimone JM, Meyer TJ. One-pot synthesis and characterization of a chromophore--donor--acceptor assembly. Inorg Chem 2000; 39:71-5. [PMID: 11229037 DOI: 10.1021/ic990512i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The acid-functionalized tris-heteroleptic chromophore--donor--acceptor assembly [RuII(bpyCOOH)(bpyCH2PTZ)(bpyCH2MV2+)](PF6)4]4+ (1) (bpyCOOH = 4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyridine-4-carboxylic acid; bpyCH2PTZ = 10-((4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyridin-4-yl)methyl)phenothiazine; bpyCH2MV2+ = 1-((4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyridin-4-yl)methyl)-1'-methyl- 4,4'-bipyridinediium) was synthesized in a one-pot reaction by careful selection of the order of ligand addition to RuCl2(DMSO)4 (DMSO = dimethyl sulfoxide). The success of this method was based upon separation and isolation of 1 from mixtures containing ligand-scrambled products by cation exchange chromatography. Metal-to-ligand charge-transfer (MLCT) excitation in acetonitrile at 464 nm was followed by intramolecular electron transfer to give a redox-separated state [RuII(bpyCOOH)(bpyCH2PTZ.+)(bpyCH2MV.+)]4+ with an efficiency of eta RS = 0.35 +/- 0.05.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Maxwell
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
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Sykora M, Maxwell KA, Meyer TJ. SiO(2) Sol-Gel Composite Films Containing Redox-Active, Polypyridyl-Ruthenium Polymers. Inorg Chem 1999; 38:3596-3597. [PMID: 11671113 DOI: 10.1021/ic990054d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Milan Sykora
- Department of Chemistry, CB#3290, Venable Hall, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290
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Worl LA, Jones WE, Strouse GF, Younathan JN, Danielson E, Maxwell KA, Sykora M, Meyer TJ. Multiphoton, Multielectron Transfer Photochemistry in a Soluble Polymer. Inorg Chem 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ic981420g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura A. Worl
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Wayne E. Jones
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Geoffrey F. Strouse
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Janet N. Younathan
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Earl Danielson
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Kimberly A. Maxwell
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Milan Sykora
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Thomas J. Meyer
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
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